XII
Contents
ra.j
Prepositions 291--
Function of prepositions. Prepositions with a purely grammatical function.
Of. 293—
Of-adjuncts qualifying a preceding noun. Ofad juncts qualifying the following noun.
To 305-^
For 307
By 307--
With 308
Conjunctions 309-
Addendutn 311



THE PARTS OF SPEECH
2.
KaïHSINOA, Handbook II. Accidence and Syntax. 2






NOUNS
INTRODUCTORY NOTE
770. For syntactic purposes classes:
1. class-nouns.
2. non-class-nouns.
nouns are divided inio two
771. Class-nouns are in the first place the nouns denoting persons, animals, or things, either imaginary or real, such as friend, William, horse, tree, devil, góblin.
For grammatical purposes it is necessary to count among class-nouns such words as hour, müe, day, pound, drink, Jear, hope, disease, language, walk, ridet, which do not deno te jpersons, animals, or things, but share with most class-nouns the capacity of being used in the plural form with a plural meaning.
772. Names of persons, animals, and things may denote individuals, or groups, hence we can distinguish individual class-nouns: tree, friend, and collective nouns: public, police, cattle.
The individual class-nouns can be used in a singular and in a plural form, changing their meaning accordingly. The collective nouns can be used in one number only, and must not be called class-nouns.
There are some class-nouns, however, that may be taken as denoting one individual whole, or as denoting a number of individual persons or things, e.g. forest, famüy; these can be



4
Nouns
used both in the singular and in the plural form, like the individual class-nouns, although the meaning is rather that of the collective nouns. We may distinguish this intermediate class as individual collective nouns.
773. The other non-class-nouns are names of materials, such as iron, gold: material nouns; or they denote abstract ideas, such as ability, grandeur, length, width: abstract nouns.
774. It may not be superfluous for some students to be reminded of the fact that one word may often be used in very different meanings, so that it may be a class-noun in one meaning, an abstract or material noun in the other.
Thus lamb may be a class-noun (a pretty lamb), but also a material noun (we are having lamb for dinner to-day). As a rule prison is a class-noun, but it is an abstract noun (equivalent more or less to ïmprisonmenf) in the following sentence: The shame attaching to prison deprives a man subsequently of his means of lirelihood. conclusion abstract n.: Our task is happily approachingconclusion.
class-n.: to form conclusions as to Mr. Henry's intentions. water class-n.: The otter lives in the water (= watery places).
material n.: Happily he feil into water, not into mud. conjecture class-n.: The conjecture has been accepted by several first rate scholars.
abstract n.: It is only conjecture that when he begged from door to door, he may have besought her for alms. legend abstract n.: Legend (i. e. legendary history or tradition) has it that her body became so miraculously heavy that they could not lift her.
class-noun: His exaltation of mind had been rewarded by a vision that celestial ministrants had wrapped him in a white robe of supernatural beauty and had led him into the Divine Presence to receive the granting of his petition for the indulgence. How far the legend is fictitious need not be debated.'



Iktroductory Note
5
humanity abstract n.: They denounced slavery as a sin, asserted the humanity of the blacks.
collective n.: It is with his usual optimism that John Amos Comenius calls a school that fulfils its function perfectly, "a true officina hominum" a workshop where men are fashioned, a forge Where humanity is hammered into shape.
See further the sections on the use of the indefinite article.
775. Abstract nouns are occasionally used as class-nouns denoting persons or things. Thus arrival, though it usually means the act of arriving, is sometimes used to denote the person who has arrived. Similarly charge may mean the person in charge, a^uirition the thing acquired. These new meanings might also be looked upon as results of conversion.
776. It should also be remembered that it is by no means easy, or indeed possible, to decide in all cases upon the class to which a noun should be considered to belong, even in a given sentence. Take, e: g., the following sentence:
The forest strétches for miles along the coast, and is rail of . paths and roads that lead you to unexpected lovelinesses — sudden glimpses öf the sea between huge beech trunks on grassy plateaus, deep ravines, their sides clothed with moss, etc.
Eliz. in Rügen, p. 125.
Here it seems necessary to call loviliness a class-noun, because its plural form may suggest different scènes; hence its plural form is accompanied with a plural meaning. But if it is taken to mean 'kinds of loveliness' it should rather be called abstract. Oompare also:
WÊÊ:~ General Savoff and the other Bulgarian Delegates have already arrived in Gonstantinople. Direct negotiation for a settlement... may now be regarded as already opened. Times "W. 5)9, 13. Official negotiations will be opened on Saturday. ib.



6
Nouns
Number
Form of the Plural Plurals in a 777, The regular plural endings are: hissing-sound \ pz] aft6r a hissing-sound: [boks, boksïz; vllïdz, vÜïdzïz] 60a;, boxes; village, villages.
2. [z] after voiced sounds (except the hisses): [dog, dogz; dei, deiz; fatte, fatoz] dog, dogs; day, days; father, fathers.
3. [s] after breathed sounds (except the hisses): [kast, ksets] eat, cats.
1. On the changes of the stem, and on the substitution of whisper for voice, see note to 4. Gompare also 9.
2. Princess, with variable stress, is always stressed on the medial syllable in the plural: [prfnsesïz].
778. To the rules given there are three groups of exceptions. The final consonant in these words in breathed in the singular, voiced in the plural.
Such a variation of the final consonant occurs:
1. with the following words in [f]:
calf elf knife leaf loaf
half self üfe sheaf wolf
shelf wife thief
Hence we say [kaf, kavz; wulf, wulvz] calf, calves; wolf, wolves, etc.
2. with the following words in [-p]: bath, path, mouth, oath.
Hence we say [bap, baSz] bath, baths etc.
3. with one word in [s]: [haus, hauzïz] house, hornes.
779. Either breathed or voiced consonants occur in the plurals of wharf: [wofs, wovz] wharfs, wharves; searf: [skafs, skavz] scarfs, searves; and occasionally self: [selfs]



Form of the Plural
7
selfs, although [selvz] selves is more usual, and the only form that can be used in the compound personal pronouns (purselves, etc). The form [huvz] kooves is rare, the usual plural being [hufs] hoofs.
, 780. The plurall of staf [staf] 'a musical notation by means of five parallel bars' is staves; note that there is also a singular stave in this meaning.
In all its other meanings (stick, body of officers assisting officer in high command, body of persons working in a school or for a newspaper, etc.) the plural is usually staffs; also in v compounds, such as üagstaffs. For tipstaf the Ooncise Oxford Dictionary s. v. tip gives -staves.
They carried staves covered with rolls of canvas.
Kath. Mansfield, The Garden Party.
Already the men had should ered their staves. ib.
781. The noun haf converted from the verb to haf 'to walk about idly' makes hqfs: to óbtain mrreptüious smokes and hafs. Capt. F. Shaw in Cassel's Magaz. of Fiction, April 1912.
782. A good many words in [-p] have both plurals, some people saying [-Sz], others [-ps]. This is the case with hearth, lath, sheath, truth, loreath, youth. I believe the voiced ending is the usual one, at any rate in Southern English.
According to Michaëls and Jones (Phonetie Dictionary) both [9908,9902] are heard for earths.
783. The voiced ending occurs only when a stressed free vowel precedeséA. Thus it is never used in the plurals of death, tMrtieth, heaUh, etc. Hence also the plural of chth it spoken with [oz] always has a free vowel: [klooz]1); if the vowel is checked the final consonants are invariably breathed: [klops].
1) Not to be mixed np with the collective [klouöz] clothes, which has no singular form.



8
Nouns
Plurals in [n, on,-ron] 784. The ouly other plural endings in English words are [n, en, ron]; viz. in [kau, kain] eow, kine; [oks, okson] ox, oxen; [tsaild, tsldrnn] child, children') ; [brAtSo, breSron] brother, brethren.
Kine and brethren are used in literary English only2); spoken English has cows and brothers.
Plurals by 785. A few plurals are formed by vowelvowel-change CQange without any suffix: [msen, men] man, men; [tup, tip] tooth, teeth;
[wüman, wimïn] woman, [fut, fit] foot, feet;
women; [laus, lais] lome, liee;
[gus, gis] goose, geese; [maus, mais] mouse, mwe.
Nouns with 786. The following nouns have two plurals doublé plurals according to their meanings: die 'stamp for coining', plural, dies [daiz]. die 'cube for gambling' plural diee [dais]. genius [dzinies] 'man or woman of genius', plural geniuses. genius 'protecting spirit', plural genii [dzinïai], or geniuses. Genii is also the usual plural of genie [dzinï] 'sprite or goblin in Arabian .tales.' penny 'coin worth a penny, a copper', plural pennies. penny as a money-value, plural pence. The same distinction is usually made between halfpennies and halfpence.
Take care of the pennies, and the pounds will take care of themselves. It is a question of pounds, shillings, and pence. The postage is three halfpence.
1) The form [tsildran] is far less usual than [tgldren] with syllabic l.
2) For details about the use of this word, as of many others in this chapter, see Poutsma ch. 25. Also Karpf, Neuere Sprachen 29.



Form of the Plural
9
The plural pence is also used in other compounds1) denoting a coin or a value: a sixpeme; eighteenpence. These compounds have the regular plural in pz]: two sixpences; how many eightpenees are there in ten shillings?
V787. Note the following quotation from The Literary 'World, March 18, 1904:
We owe to Tit-Bits the discovery of an occasion on which the plural of 'goose' would not be 'geese' but 'gooses'. It would happen if we had to send for 'two tailor's gooses', for 'tailor's geese' would be likely to be mUunderstood (!). Yet such is the stupidity of examiners that, if an examinee wrote 'goose, plural geese, but sometimes gooses', we expect the answer would not be passed.
Foreign Words 788. Foreign words often retain their foreign plurals, especially as long as they are little used. Some of them have both the regular English and the foreign plurals. Some are used only in the plural; others remain unchanged in the plural.
A good many foreign words take the English plural endings only.
Ctassical Words . 789, Classical words in 'um cl^ge this into -a, in the plural. Hence the plurals addenda, data 'things known or assumed as facts, and made the basis of reasoning, or calculation'; desiderata, media, strata, dicta.
790. Classical words in -us mostly change this into -i. Thus alumnus, alumni; focus [foukes]), foei [fousai]; radius, radii; magus [meiges] magi [meidzai].
791. Note apparatus, both singular and plural; also apparatuses.
1) The form is [pens] after an unstressed syllabie: ['eitjh'pens eighteenpence; [pons] after a stressed syllabie: [tApans, eitpons] twopence,eightpence.



10
Nouns
792. A few words in -us have a different form in the plural: genus [dzinos] genera [dzenare].
793. Classical words in -a mostly change this into -ae. Hence the plurals nebulae [nebjüli], minutiae [maa'njusii].
794. Classical words in -ie ps] mostly change this into -es [iz] in the plural. Hence the plurals analyses, bases, crises, hypotheses, oases, parentheses, theses.
795. Note further:
eriterion, plural criteria.
larynx [lserïijks], plural larynges [lserïndziz].
There are a few classical nouns, used in the plural only: antipOoles, aborigines.
The singular and plural is identical in series, species.
Some classical plurals have been taken for singulars. Hence antipodes is sometimes used as a singular, and agenda forms a new plural agendas; stamina, originally the plural of stamen, is now treated as a collective or abstract noun, meaning 'strength, power of endurance'.
Lounsbury (Harpers's Magazine, Febr. 1906) notes: Stamina used as the subject of a plural verb would jar upon the linguistic sense of even the classically educated. So men who are aware of its origin employ it almost invariably in the objective case. A few, who are ignorant of its being a Latin plural, occasionally use it as the subject of a singular verb.
796. Some classical nouns have both the foreign and an English plural.
funguses [fAngasïz]; fungi [fAndzai]. memorandums, memoranda, automatons, automata. terminuses, termini, formulas, formulae.



Form op the Plural
11
appendixes, appendices, indexes, indices.
Words that are mach used of ten have an English plural. Hence the plurals
encomiums, millenniums, hippopotamuses, erocuses, censuses.
All Latin words in -tor, and -men have the English ending: orators, specimens, etc.
Non-classical 797. There are a few non-claasical foreign foreign words plurals in English:
bandit [baendït], plural banditti [bse^ditï], also bandits. prima donna, plural prima donnas and prime donne. dilettante, plural dilettanti, both pronounced [dïle'tsentï]. virtuoso [veetju'ouzöu], plural virtuosi [vöotjü'ouzai], also virbuosos.
seraph [seref], plural seraphim [sereflm], also seraphs. cherub [tsereb], plural cherubim [tserobim], also cherubs. From French we have Messrs. [mesez], and Mesdames [me'dam] to serve as plurals to Mr. and Mrs. With Messers Tibble, Cadbury, or Fry.
Gilbert Frankau, One of Us, p. 75.
Shi sometimes remains unchanged in the plural, but there is also a plural skis.
Forty years ago it was not considered genteel to run on ski. If you wished to progress from one place to another, a sleigh was the proper means of conveyance; ski were for the peasant. Times W. 16/1, 16.
798. The names of native races and other words of littleknown languages usually remain unchanged.
There was of course a good number of Swahili among my workmen, together with a few Wa-Kamba, Wa-Nyam-Wezi, and others. Patterson, Tsavo p. 119.



12
Noüns
Note the foreign spelling of the plural ending inEsquimaux, by the side of Eskimos *).
799. We also find:
plateaux, by the side of plateaus, both representing the pronunciation [pletouz].
beaux [bouz], bureaux, and more words in -eau. Also adieux [odjuz].
800. When words of foreign origin come to be generally used their spelling is usually anglioized as well as their pronunciation. This is the éxplanation of the following statement (quoted from the Periodieal published by the Olarendon Press):
The Society for Pure English in its latest tract (No. XIII) asks London editors to print as follows:
French Words: confrère for confrère; debris for débris; denouement for dénouement; depot for depót, dépót; detour for détour; employee for employé; flair for flair*); intransigent for intransigeant; levee for levée; malease for malaise; morale for moral (Tr. iii, p. 16); nonchalance tor nonchalance; nuance for nuance; parvenu for parvenu; plebiscite for plébiscite; provenance for provenance; rencounter for rencontre; rendezvous for rendezvous; role for róle; seance for seance; tamber for timbre (Tr. iii, p. 10).
Latin and Italian Plurals: apexes for apices; bandits for banditti; dilettantes for dilettanti; gymnasiums for gymnasia; lacunas for lacune; nebulas for nebulaj; sanatoriums for sanatoria; vortexes tor vortices. «The following should retain their Latin plurals in their scientific sense, but otherwise use focuses for foei; formulas for formuhe; indexes for indices. The two following words may conveniently keep their Latin plurals when used collectively, but otherwise use automatons for automata; memorandums for memoranda.
1) The forms Esquimo, Eskimo are also used in a plural, or collective, meaning:
These Esquimo called themselves Ogluli Esquimo. Nineteenth Century, Febr. 1908, p. 249.
2) i.e. no italics.



Form op the Plural
13
And e for se: coeval for coseval; medieval for medireval: primeval for primseval; peony for pseony.
Plural of 801. Compound nouns inflect the last
compound nouns element:
blackbirds, handfuls, dining-rooms,forget-me-nots, go-betweens, lock-outs etc.
1. Compounds in -ful are also found with the firsfc element inflected: two spoonsful for each person. These forms, however, are generally disapproved of.
2. The plural of trade union is trade unions and trades unions (Daily News, passim).
802. Compounds in [-maan] man, like those in [-wümon] woman, follow the general rule, taking [-men, wimïn] in the plural:
butterman, buttermen; muffinman, muffinmen; betting-men and cardsharpers (Sweet, Spoken English p. 81); butterwoman, butterwomen; Frenehwoman, Frenehwomen.
803. Most compounds with man, however, are pronounced [-men] both in the singular and in the plural, although the spelling hides the identity:
footman, footmen; policeman, policemen; fsherman, fishermen; seaman, seamen; Englishman, Énglishmen; Chinaman, Chinamen.
804. Some of these compounds in [men], especially those denoting nationality, are pnly used for individuals. The whole nation, or a complete group (e. g. an arniy), is named by using the adjective (generally with the definite article): the English, ihe French, etc. The adjective Chinese is freely used as a noun (without a plural ending, like the other words in -ese: 826), but for individuals Chinaman, Chinamen is more usual. See 1787 f.
Accordingly at midnight numbers of the police on duty in Westminster and other central districts left their beats.
Times W. 6/9, 18.



14
Nouns
Long before she set sail on the ocean, other peoples — Portuguese, Spaniards, Genoese, Dutch, Frenchmen, and Danes — had explored the waters of the globe.
Times Lit. 48/H, 15.
805. Compounds consisting of a noun and an adverb or a prepositional adjunct inflect the noun:
hokers-on; fathers-in-law, heirs-at-law, etc.
In spite of temporary reactions and sets-back the reputation and popularity of Ronsard have grown continuously throughout the last hundred years. Times Lit. $/3, 22.
According to Michaelis-Jones (Phonetic Dictionary) both the plurals mother-in-laws and mothers-in-law occur.
806. Compounds consisting of a genitive and a noun follow the general rule. Many of these combinations, however, are half-compounds only; see below on the Genitive and Common Case.
The classical myths viewed in the aspect of baby's stories.
Hawthorne, Tanglewood Tales, p. 190. The wives of the Queen's Counsels gave him at least a fortnighf s notice when they asked him to dinner.
J. O. Hobbes, Emotions II ch. 3.
807. Appositional compounds with man- and woman- (also gentleman-, etc.) for their first elements inflect both parts: men-friends, women-elerks, women-gardeners, women-teachers, gentlemen-boarders, statesmen-bishops, etc.
808. Occasionally, however, these compounds form their plurals by inflecting their second elements only. Por the cause of this see 846. It should be remembered that if the first word is a compound of man {gentleman, statesman) it is a question of spelling only.
The salary of woman clerks commences at £ 65, rising by & 5 annually to & 110.
The autumn examination for 10 woman and 40 girl clerkships in the Givil Service will take place on Octoberll.



fobm of the PlüEAL
15
It was everywhere, that desire: among her fellow-stadents, among her young man friends, in her mother's drawingroom' and her aunt's studio. Galsworthy, Fraternity. '
Below is a list of gentleman cadets who pass out for appointment to commissions in the Regular Army.
Also: statesman fathers, statesman sons.
809. The singular form is the rule in woman-suffragists (thus passim in The Times).
When, however, sufragist is feit as an opposition to the first part, we also find women-suffragists.
The magistrate must surely see that he could not administer the dead letter of the law against the spirit of a new law which was manifest in the women suffragists.
Times W. 13/3, 14.
Sir Edward Carson yielded on Monday to the women suffragists from Ulster who had picketed his house. ib.
810. The collectives menkind, womenkind (also in -folk) differ in meaning from mankind, womankind.
Meredith's theory that women are what their menkind make of thera. Sturge Henderson, Meredith.
In time one or two of the boldest persuaded their womenkind to call at the corner house. Sidgwick, Severins ch. 1.
He found that their men folk belonged to the several worlds of finance, law, medicine, and politics. ib. ch. 4.
811. In other than appositional compounds the first element remains unchanged: The Man-eaters of Tsavo (title), man-hunters, man-traps, woman-haters, etc.
But the last of the woman-baiters«) had passed by now.
Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 1. Compound Tttles 812. In compound titles there is a tendency to inflect the last element only.
1) i.e. men trying to disturb a woman-suffrage meeting.



16
Nouns
major-generals, lieutenant-generals, lieutenant-colonels, lieutenant-governors, Lord-lieutenants, governor-generals, Lord Ghancellors, Lord Justices, etc.
In official language, however, both elements, if nouns, are often inflected.
Lords Lieutenants, Lords Justices, Lords Presidents, knightsbachelors, etc.
When the last part is known to be (or rather: to have been) an adjective, some people, especially those who give attention to the form of their language, inflect the noun only, as in Lords Lieutenant, three Inspectors-General, governors-general, the two great Poets Laureate of last eentury. (Verrall, Lectures on Dryden, p. 1), knights errant (Galsworthy, Freelands, ch. 10).
For the same reason the plural of court martial is Courts Martial in a book (by David Hannay, Oambridge University Press, 1914), although people would generally say court martials.
Tltle + Proper 813. A titlex) followed by a proper name name is also a kind of compound, so that the plural ending is usually added to the last element of the group. The subordination of the title to the proper name is shown by its weak stress.
The Mr. (Mrs., Miss) Forsters, the Captain Forsters, the Dr. Forsters, etc. He called on the Miss Brownings in the evening.
Gaskell, Wives I ch. 1. Among the county people were the two young Mr. Hamleys.
ib. ch. 16.
I shall so like to be able to snub those Miss Proudies.
Trollope, Framley, ch. 23. What is interesting in his case is that there are not two Mr. Balfours. Times Lit. 7/5, 14.
1) Whether honoriftc (Mr.) or professional (captain, professor) is indifferent.



Form of the Plural
17
The family friend of the two Miss Jenkyhses.
Gaskell, Granford. Little Flora Gordon was staying with the Misses Jenkyns. ib.
814. In formal language, and in directing letters, the title is inflected:
The Misses (= To the Misses) Forster.
The plural of Mr: and Mrs. is Messrs. [njesez]; Mesdames [me'dam]. The latter is rare. Messrs. Forster.
And for all the Mesdames Grundy who ever lived
Cassel's Magaz. of Fiction.
815. In names of firms Messrs. is invariably used. Messrs. Watson & Go.
816. The title is inflected when wë have no real compound, hence:
1. in enumerating the different members of a family. General, Mr., and the Misses Green.
The very blackest view is the one taken by the numerous Mrs. i) and Misses Grundy, to say nothing of the almost equally numerous Grundys, Esq. Occasionally the name is, inflected even here:
I found that Captain and the Miss Browns were invited.
Gaskell, Cranford.
2. when different proper names follow.
The Misses Mary and Jane Findlater have been studying the question. Times Lit. 24/2> 16 8
Lords Dudley, Ripon, Warwick, and Crewe, have presided each of them over the corporations of the towns from which respectively they derive their titles. Escott, Transformations p. 112,
1) The title is not inflected here, clearly becauoe Mesdame» is not a current plural of Mrs.
Krüisinga, Handbook IX Aecidence and Syntax. 2. 2



18
Nouns
Drs. Grenfell and Hunt; Messrs. Spencer and Gillen.
Athenaeum.
But the title may also be repeated:
Dr. Grenfell and Dr. Hunt; Mr. Spencer and Mr. Gillen, ib.
817 Names of firms/ however, invariably take Messrs. and Mesdames: Messrs. Bobinson $ Cleaver, Mesdames Pallver and Ealliday, I>ressmakers and Costumim; clearly becaüse these groups are more of the nature of compounds.
818 In groups of proper names with class-nouns expressing relationship the class-noun in inflected, and may precede or follow.
The Sisters Brontë.
The Brothers Margueritte have decided to dissolve their literary partnership.
Guesses at Truth, by the Brothers Hare.
The three Brontë sisters. Gaskell, Life of C. Brontë ch. 8.
The Pelham brothers found themselves treated with coldness and reserve.
819 In these groups class-nouns not expressing relationship always follow; also brothers in names of firms (usually abbreviated Bros.). .
The Chapman girls took possession of another corner.
Pett Ridge, Garland, ch. 18.
Baring Bros.
aronp-Plurah, 820. In colloquial English the plural of that kind of thing is those kwd of things. We see that kind of thing, kindof person, etc. are feit as units, just as ra verbs we have the preterites kimd of began, etc. (see 70). We may call these formations group-plurals. For an explanation, see 1454 ff.
These kind of tools. S^eL I can't bear these kind of things. Trollope, The Way.



foem OF THE PlüEAL
19
It is a charming talent: all manner of arts and graces proceed from it. \ Times w 29 8, 13.
The thoughts on all manner of public affairs of an intelligent experienced man. Public Opinion 19/12, 13 p. 704/1 '
'Those sort of rules are all gone by now,' said Mr. Arabin.
Trollope, Barchester Towers ch. 34 There are some sort of things that one ought not to stand.
Trollope, The "Way. As to two comic articles," he exclaims on one occasion or two any sort of articles, out of me, that's the intensest extreme of no-goism." Ward, Dickens, p. 100.
821. The use of this construction is often disapproved of. Another literary monster is to be found in such phrases
as "1 don't like these sort of people." This usage is patronised by nraety-nine talkers out of a hundred; and, sad to say, is rapidly finding its way into print. Pilot 22/3, 02, p. 317/2. The natural tendency of living English, evidently, is to use the construction. Dean Alford (Queen's English p. 58) observes:
It must be confessed that the phrases, "this kindof things" that sort of things," have a very awkward sound.
822. It may be added that the group-plural of kind, manner, and sort only occurs after some pronouns. The Oxford Dictionary states that sort of chiefly occurs after these and those, rarely after other pronouns. And the group-plural manner of things etc. occurs chiefly after all.
823. The interpretation of kind of thing, etc. as units is borne out by the use of the singular form in such cases as this elass of book: book is singular through the influence of this.
And it is this quality undoubtedly that makes this whole class of book interesting. Times Lit. 23/12, 15.
His rebels show hardly a tracé of the arrogant self-sufficiency which makes that class of person objectionable.
Athenaeum 4/9, 15.



20
Nouns
It would be easy to multiply examples of this type of town.
Davis, Med. Europe p. 220.
824. When kind has an independent meaning it naturally takes the plural form, as in the following example.
Accordingly, there are two kinds of chartered town.
Davis, Med. Europe, p. 218.
Use of the Number-Forms
825. The plural of nouns is used in the first place to denote a number of identical persons or things. Sometimes it denotes single things consisting of parts (barraeks, vaults, scissors). The plural may also be due to concord; see the sections on Concord of Number. Sometimes there is little difference between singular and plural, as in the following case:
The English as a whole are pleasure-loving and slack. They worship games; and, after all, the Englishman is a jolly sight better fellow than the average German or Frenchman.
Waugh, Loom of Youth I ch. 6.
The meaning and use of singular and plural class-nouns greatly depends on the presence or absence of the definite or indefinite article. They are therefore best discussed in dealing with the articles. It should be noted that what is called the singular is often really the neutral form, neutral that is with regard to number.
826. Some nouns are used in one form only, both in a singular and in a plural meaning. One class is formed by the names of nations in -ese, and the word Swiss.
Canada will exempt from compulsory military service naturalized Japanese and North American Indians.
Times W. 1/2, 18.
The cause is evidently that these words are adjectives, not completely converted into nouns.



Use op the Number-Forms
21
827. Another group is formed by words ending in a sound that may be (and sometimes is) taken for a plural ending:
1. alms, means, hustings (with z).
2. barracks, works (and compounds), vaults, links.
3. chicken.
He asked for an alms. A barracks.
Do you remember being on that works ? Bennett, Leonora. A local munition works. Times. We have laid out a small links') in the park.
Vachell, Brothers, ch. 18. Our garden is so nice now, and we have over thirty chicken.
828. In some of these words the final sound is evidently taken for a plural ending, for we find'the singular firework, barrack, chick.
As artificial as a firework. Ghesterton, What's Wrong p. 199.
At first it was nothing more than a fortified barrack posted on a rocky hillock. Essays in Legai History p. 233.
Early this morning a large armed j^trty attacked Loughmore Police Barrack, Tipperary, with Rmbs and rifle fire.
Times 20/8, 20.
829. As a final [z] occurs only in - words with a suffix (English Sounds, ch. Vil) the sound suggests the interpretation as a plural in the case of alms, means, hustings with sufficiënt clearness to prevent a plural in [ïz] being formed. But there are no forms without s; thus almshouse (compare scissorgrinder, billiard-player, etc.).
830. The words gaUows, summons sometimes remain unchanged in the plural, but we also find gallowses, sümmonses (the latter regularly in The Times). The plurals are sometimes avoided; thus I have found warrants and forms of summons.
1) i. e. golf-links.



22
Nouns
831. The words series, species are also invariable in the plural, but these forms are properly foreign plurals; see 795.
832. Some names of animals have one form only for the singular and the plural: deer, sheep, grouse; cod, salmon, trout.
The country swarms with game—with wolves, and bears, deer and boars. Weyman, Red Robe ch. 2.
The Arctic Tungus preserve still the habit of riding their reindeer. Times Lit. 40,8, 16.
Gome, I have eighteen hundred sheep.
W. Davies in Van Doorn, Primrose Path, p. 4. Several exceptionally large cod have been caught at Great Yarmouth, including two of 26 f§. and 24 f$. 11 oz.
Times W. 21/12, 17. A dozen and a half of small trout from one brook.
Blackmore, Lorna Doone ch. 32.
833. The reason for the plural use of these words cannot be in their form. They are of ten used in a collective sense, however; this explains the use of the numerative head before deer1). The names of fishes are often used as material nouns. Although these considerations may explain the origin of the plural use of these words, it should be understood that the unchanged form is also used to denote an individual plural, as in the quotations of cod and trout in the preceding section.
834. Many other names of fishes, birds, and wild beasts are more or less frequently used unchanged in a plural meaning, but they have also a plural form in s. This use of the singular is frequent among sportsmen, although it is not limited to them.
It was the first time I had seen one of these fine antelope and I was delighted with the sight. Tsavo p. 139 a).
1) It has likewise a bowling-green in it, and having some beautiful lawns, feeds about forty head of deer. In Praise of Oxford I 303.
2) Further examples ib. p. 150 (giraffe, rhino, bushbuck, etc), 193 f., 198 f.



Use of the Number-Forms
23
He was informed that the poaehers had gone some considerable distance after elephant. Daily News, 1912.
Woodcock are unusially plentiful in Devonshire this winter.
Times W. 19/1, 17.
The big purveyors were offering six quail or snipe for one coupon. * 124> d8-
A marble basin containing thee gold fish.
Hichens, Ambition ch. 19.
'How cruel I' Anna cried, startled at the nearness of the two fish as they sprang about in an old sugar-box at her feek Bennett, Anna ch. 10.
In an hour he had killed two dozen small perch and a half-pound dace. Phillpotts, Beacon I ch. 7. p. 54.
They caught nine mackerel. Bennett, Anna.
The cattle were wandering into the open pastures, the quail were calling. Vachell, Ganyon p. 166.
"Why did I love my old dog that died las' fall? He wan't no use after quails or ducks. ib. p. 232.
The duck flew over them, quacking loudly. Snipe rose at their feet. ib- P- 73.
The moorland was full of snipes and teal.
Blackmore, Lorna Doone ch. 12.
835. Some words do not change their form in the plural in a special meaning. Thus, we speak of the crafts of the shoemaker and the carpenter, the sails of a ship, and may say that a man killed six rabbits in six shots; but the words craft, sail, shot are used without an ending in the meanings illustrated by the following quotations.
Hundreds of frail craft with their still frailer contents come from all parts of the river. Academy, 17/8, 12.
The fleet left the Dardanelles early on Saturday morning. It was composed of the battleships... with from ten to 14 torpedo craft. Times W. 24/3, 13.
A fleet of twenty sail.
The work of building up a fleet of air craft.
Times W. 6/3, 14.



24
Nouns
Storm'd at with shot and shell. Tennyson, Light Brigade. The Spanish frigate fired two shot, which dropped to leeward of the Favourite. Oxf. Dict.
Shot is exclusively used as a plural or collective noun to denote projectiles, especially halls or bullets as distinguished from explosive shells.
836. Cannon is also used unchanged in the plural, but eannons is found as well.
18 machine-guns and three cannon. Times W. 5/1, 17.
837. When two attributive adjectives or nouns, closely connected, especially by and, refer to two specimens of the idea expressed by the class-noun following the second adjective, the noun is generally put in the plural form. The qualifying words (especially the def inite article) are sometimes repeated. See also the sections on the prop-word one.
In the sixth and seventh centuries Ireland was the island of saints and the mother of missionaries.
Wakeman, Introd. p. 16.
Dante chose Virgil as a guide for the first and second stages of his pilgrimage.
We should be the last to underrate those great outbursts of poetry which attended, and were in part inspired by, the first and second French Revolutions.
By far the most important event in the academical history of the thirteenth century was the foundation of University, Balliol, and Merton Colleges. Brodrick, Oxford, p. 15.
It was. by Anglo-Saxon missionaries from the seventh to the eleventh centuries that Germany, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, and Ireland were converted to the gospel.
Stubbs, Lectures p. 16.
S. B. Maitland, The Dark Ages: a series of essays illustrating the state of religion and literature in the ninth to the ■ twelfth centuries (title).



Use op the Number-Forms
25
Much has been said and might be repeated concerning the third and fourth voyages. Times Lit. 15/2, 18.
838. When the adjectives qualify a proper name the singular is more usual.
Nor is the title the Age of Anne more appropriate for a period whose best years began with the last two years of her reign, and culminated under the first and second George.
Athenaeum, 30/11, 12.
839. Sometimes a plural noun has an additional meaning besides its meaning in the singular form:
eompass 'instrument of navigation, plural compasses.
compasses 'instrument used in drawing'.
Usually the plural form has a collective meaning: advices 'information'; leads 'a lead roof; manners. Occasionally it is a material noun, as in spirits, or an abstract noun, as in physics.
840. The plural is used of all nouns of measure precedéd by a numeral higher than one.
The book is priced at four shillings net. The meeting lasted five days.
Heaton gave up the attempt to swim across the Channel at 11.27 last night, when within one and a half miles of Grisnez.
841. The following quotation seems to be an exception to 840.
About IJ mile due north of the city of Salisbury stands the imposing ancient monument known as Old Sarum.
Times W. 19/11, 1909.
But this should be read: one mile and three quarters.
842. In colloquial English names of measures are frequently found in the singular forms when another numeral follows that is not accompanied by a noun.



26
Nouns
lts rooms were eight feet high and its doors five foot seven.
Wells, Joan and Peter ch. I § 2 p. 7. "And was she tall enough?" "Only five foot five."
Galsworthy, Freelands, ch. 5. : *She's six foot two if she's an inch, and her hands and feet —" Mrs. Belgrave shuddered with a gratified glance at her own slim fingers. Hume, Red Money, p. 17.
But in written English most writers prefer the plural forms: five pounds ten; five feet ten. And the plural is always uséd when the second numeral has a noun after 'it: five pounds ten shillings; five feet ten inches.
843. Note the following:
German Air Race. First Stage Mishaps to All But One Competitor. (Newspaper heading).
844. Some names of measures, such as stone, horsepower, candlelight, are used in the singular (i. e. neutral) form after numerals.
An engine of 20 horsepower. A man weighing 12 stone.
845. Nouns of definite number have the singular (or neutral) form if preceded by definite numerals (a). "When an indefinite numeral precedes it seems that the plural is the rule (b). Mülüm may take the plural form in either case (e).
a. The number of policemen was five hundred.
b. The crowd was repulsed by a body of police several hundreds strong. Times W. 13;3, 14.
c. Of the 410 million British subjects, constituting about one-fifth of the population of the globe, 44 millions reside in the United Kingdom. Of the remainder, only about 12'/g millions at most are of European — and these by no means of exclusively British — stock, 305 millions are Asiatics, and 48 millions are Africans of various races.
Gromer, Imperalism p. 15 (See also ib. p. 19).



USB OP THE NüMBEE-FoRMS
27
I am not worth paying two million for, Clara.
Hume, Red Money, p. 194.
Attributive nouns 846. The neutral form is generally used in the case of attributive nouns. They may be qualified by a definite numeral.
Some will feel that a boon of this kind should not be needed by a freshman class. Mod. Lang. Notes, Febr. '14 p. 55 and 56.
Things like this should be ample warning that a two million pound battleship may be crippled by an aeroplane costing £ 450.
A five-pound note.
A dozen twopenny-halfpenny stamps.
A fourteen-ton yawl; a little five-ton cutter.
Conrad, Chance, p. 11.
A three-volume novel. A two-horse carriage.
847. It is often difiicult, or impossible, to distinguish between compounds and groups of an attributive noun and a noun. See also 808 f.
Five river views. Two corner houses.
848. Attributive genitives usually correspond with plural attributive nouns. Thus an hour's walk corresponds with a three hours' walk. See the sections on The Case and Number of Attributive nouns.
Attributive Nouns 849. The neutral form is also used of of Definite Number nouns of definite number, such as dozen, score, hundred, thousand, when preceded by a numeral. These nouns differ from others in that they can also take indefinite numerals.
Two dozen, pocket-handkerchiefs.
The age of man is three score years and ten.
Two hundred feet below surged the Pacific.
Vachell, Spragge p. 5.



28
Nouns
We certainly passed a couple of hundred patients being . conveyed to the rail way. Times W. 29,11, 12.
A few hundred years ago the whole of the New World and a large part of the Old World were unknown.
He farms several thousand acres of land in Essex.
Will none of our own rich men, with a taste for speculative investment, lay out a few score thousand pounds in prospecting for buried art and buried knowledge? Times W. 16,5,13.
850. After indefinite numerals the nouns mentioned in 849 are sometimes used attributively in the plural form. In this case the noun they qualify is always connected with it by of (a). The preposition of is occasionally found when the singular is uséd (b). It must be used when the headwordhas other pronominal qualifiers (e), and when it is a pronoun (d).
a. Several thousands of people attended the meeting.
Times W. 19/7, 18.
b. Varying from a few pounds to a few hundred of pounds.
Bennett, Anna ch. 8.
We may take leave to add that the poem contains a few dozen of good lines. Millar, Mid-Eighteenth Gent. p. 188.
As it flew now, indeed it must pass a hundred million of miles wide of the earth. Wells, Country of the Blind p. 315.
Some two score of obsolete verbs. Athenaeum.
c. For want of a few hundred of these fellows we haven't paid a dividend for years.
Galsworthy, Man of Property ch. 3. It would be easy to draw up a list of many score of such instances. Athen. 24,7, 15.
d. It was organized by the Left Social Revolutionists, who, the messages state, are now in flight from the city., Several hundred of them have been arrested. Times W. 12/7, 18.
851. The plural form is also necessary: a. after some.
We saw some hundreds of these birds.



TJSE OP THE NuMBEE-FOEMS
29
The ice of glaciers often attains a thickness of many hundred or even some thousands of feet.
Avebury, Scenery of England.
Some hundred would mean 'about a hundred'. 6. when no numeral precedes.
Hundreds of pounds were spent.
If Savernake and Fontainebleau are forests, what are these hundreds of square miles of pines?
Blackwood's Magaz. Aug. 1912.
852. Some nouns of definite number are always connected with the word they qualify by of: a braee of partridges. Theyare feit to be attributively used, however, and take the neutral form after numerals. Such are braee, team, gross.
A thousand team of cattle conveyed the timber to the coast.
Oxf. Dict. s.v. team. Twenty braee of pheasants. Two gross of pens. Several braee of partridges.
853. The word pair usually takes the plural form; also million, except when a numeral foliows.
Six and a half pairs of eyes. Wells, Country p. 204. I have also bought some pairs of stockings. Two pairs of silk stockings.
We were the object of the concentrated gaze of some eight thousand pairs of eyes. Haggard, Sol.'s Mines.
Four millions of people = four million people. Three millions sterling.
But 4004056 is usually
four million four thousand and fifty-six.
When pair ia a numerative (864 f.) it generally has the neutral form after numerals. : J>h



30
Nouns
Collective nouns 854. Individual collective nouns do not differ from ordinary class-nouns in their use of the singular and plural forms: family, families; crew, crews, etc.
855. The other collective nouns (772) usually have ouly one form. The following are always used in a singular form:
cattle, public, people, police, swine, vermin, horse 'cavalry', foot 'infantry', shell, fruit.
856. Some of these nouns can also occur as class-nouns. In that case they are also used in the plural form with a plural meaning: peoples 'nations', harses, feet, etc.
There was a considerable amount of discussion and expectation in that more intelligent section of the educated publics of the various civilised countries which followed scientific development Wells, The World Set free, Eng. Rev. Dec. 1913.
857. Some of the words in 855 cannot take a plural form and are always used in a collective meaning, e.g. cattle, police. They can be preceded by a numeral, though even then they never take a plural form. The one but last quotation shows that the construction is sometimes disapproved of.
Twenty clergy walked in the procession.
In every village there are two or three resident gentry.
We are daily told that "addresses will be given by the following clergy," and that "upwards of sixty clergy" illustrated this or that scène. Pilot, 8/2, 1902.
He dwelt specially on the more odious aspects of Stanway's character, and swore that, had Stanway forty womenfolk instead of four, he, Arthur Twemlow, should still do his obvious duty of finishing what he had begun.
A. Bennett, Leonora ch. 4.
858. On the collective meaning of the singular (or properly neutral) form of class-nouns, see below on the absence of the article.



TJSE OP THE NUMBER-FOEMS
31
859. Many collective nouns always have a plural form:
amends, bowels, riehes, fruits (e.g. the fruits of the earth 'produce'), proceeds, eweepings, etc.
Abstract and 860. Abstract and material nouns generally Material nouns have a singular form: virtue, absence; iron, wood. Some are always plural (often with a collective sense): curds, dregs, embers, etc.
861. Some abstract and material nouns may have either form: ash 'of a cigar', ashes 'in the grate'; it is a great pity ; it is a thousand pities; a man of ability, or abüities; the waters of the Nüe.
It should be noted that the plural form does not properly ' denote a difference of number. It may serve to intensify the meaning, as in the following quotation.
It was a lovely afternoon. The waters of the lake, which is twenty miles in circumference, were burnished by the settipg sun.
862. We sometimes find the plural form of abstract and material nouns to denote the different kinds or the forms in which the idea or material may show themselves. Sometimes the plural is due to concord.
Gigars in four strengths; extra mild, mild, medium and full.
.... ignoring human frailties and weaknesses.
The book combines historical. record and memoirs with a most complete handbook to the natives, industries (kinds of industry), economie plants, soils (kinds of soit), climate, diseases and religions of the protectorate.
He was a patron of art, having brought back ivories and . bronzea (articles made of ivory and bronze) from Italy.
Englishmen have a way of thrusting their political beliefs and views into almost every matter of daily life and business.
Escott, England I 123.



32
Nouns
Mr. Edward Gannon proposed that the whole of the properties held within Oxford by the Colleges should be put under one management. Athen. -1/3, 13.
863. Sometimes the plural form of abstract or material nouns has a collective sense. This is often intensifying at the same time.
The sands of the Sahara; the heats of the torrid zone; the snows and frosts of an Arctic winter; the waters oftheNile.
The trees were bright green; the'spring hopefulness was still unstained by the dusts of summer.
Wells, Country of the Blind, p. 162.
The sands at Margate are excellent for children.
Numeratives
864. When a word with a singular meaning has a distinctly plural form there is a natural tendency to avoid using expressions of number before it. Thus a wine-vaults is feit by many as a not quite natural construction (see 827). Hence we often find a noun used before such plural words with the function of avoiding the collocation of an indefinite article or numeral and a plural noun. When such words have no meaning of their own they are called numeratives.
865. Such a word is pair used before names of things consisting of two parts.
A little pair of scissors. Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 4. p. 39." A pair of bellows, a pair of trousers, etc. Two pair of scissors etc.
The ruin of three pair of skis. Punch 31/3, 15.
Upon his nose were a pair of rimless pince-nez.
Yachell, Canyon, p. 136. Several pair of breeches. W. Irving Sketch-Book p. 39.
1) For the singular form pf pair see 853.



NuMEBATTVES
33
All my drugs were in the cabinet — a long journey down two pair of stairs. Stevenson, Dr. Jekyll ed. Schutt p. 118.
866. It is not good English to say a scissors, a bellows. a trousers, although this construction occurs opcasionally.
A wheezy old bellows. Meredith, Ormont ch. 3.
You can see that it was a very short-bladed scissors.
Conan Doyle, Hound of the Baskervilles p. 56.
867. Other words used before nouns with a plural form are more limited in their use: a flight of steps, a parcel of servants. Compare 870.
868. Numeratives are also used before abstract, and collective nouns. The most important are piece, bit, head.
Now, she found it easier to pretend it was all a piece of agreeable imagination. Pett Ridge, Name of Garland ch. 12.
An interesting piece of news. A ridiculous piece of affectation. Times 10/8, 16.
I bought a little book — a piece of extravagahce I could ill afford. Brontë, Villette ch. 6.
I stored up this,piece of casual information ib. ch.3.
Something more than a piece of sentient pretühess.
Wharton, House of Mirth, p. 89.
A brilliant piece of patriotic oratory. Times W. 21/12,17.
He had one piece of luck. It froze. Therefore no anxiety about the condition of boots. Bennett, Gard ch. 1 § 5.
To Sophia she seemed to be a vulgar little piece of goods, with dubious charm and a glance that was far too brazen.
Bennett, Old Wives' Tale UI ch. 5 § 3.
It concerns a piece of injustice done by you.
Meredith, Harrington ch. 34.
Here is a bit of news that will interest you.
Bernard paid the money and took his leave, delighted that
1) This sentence shows that numeratives do not exclusively occur when the noun is preceded by an indefinite article or a numeral.
Kruisinga, Handbook II. Accidence and Syntax. 2. 3



43
Nouns
he had made use of his opportunity to get a bit of advice from the great lawyer. Van Neck, Easy English Prose.
We had a bit of dinner together. Hope, Zenda ch. 2.
Twenty head of cattle (game, etc); also thirty head of oxen, deer.
Cock-fighting can still be found in the North of England in the quiet, sequestered glades of the northern counties; but the days are gone for ever when men as prominent as the twelfth Earl of Derby would keep three thousand head ot fighting cocks at walk at the same time *).
Times Lit. 23/12, 20.
869. The numeratives piece and bit are also used in the plural form. For the singular form of head and pair see 849 ff.
She imparted various pieces of news relating to the Towers.
Gaskell, Wives 2 p. 80. Mr. Koebel's criticisms and his pieces of advice were in fact familiar to us from his own earlier volumes.
Times Lit. 4/10, 18. The Board of Education might quite reasonably invite the Universities to co-operate in the carrying on of certain definite pieces of research. Times Ed. S. 25/9, 19.
870. When the word has a distinct meaning of its own, it is not properly a numerative (a), but it is sometimes difficult to decide (6). See also 867.
a. A member of the Bar, of the clergy, of the public, etc. He burst into a loud peal of laughter.
Each man has a world of his own and sees a different set of facts... The most candid thinkers will come to different conclusions when they are really provided with different sets of fact. Leslie Stephen, Utiliarians I p. 3.
b. Two days later Denry arrived home for tea with a most surprising article of news. Bennett, Gard ch. 8 § 3.
(She) ostentatiously folded unimportant articles of clothing with an exaggerated carefulness. Sinister Street p. 156 f.
1) Note that head is here used before a plural noun with a plural meaning.



Common Oase
35
Case
871. Most English nouns have only one form (apart from the distinction of number). Some, however, have two cases i.e. forms serving to show their function in the sentence. We distinguish them as the eommon case and the genitive.
Common Case
872. The common case has no ending, so that it is identical with the stem of the noun. As the common case of nouns occurs in all parts of the sentence, it is a neutral form. In some uses, especially in its attributive use, it shares its functions with the genitive; see the sections on the Genitive (882 ff.) and on The Common Case and the Genitive{917 ff.).
873. It is used as the subject (a), the predicate (b), the object (c), the adverbia! (d) or adjectival (e) adjunct of a sentence (with a preposition or not), and as the form of address (f).
a. My father will come home to morrow.
b. He is a very good fellow.
c. I saw a boy who was running away.
d. He ran a great distance.
We spoke of a great many things.
A gentleman who lived Cricklewood way.
Pett Ridge, Garland ch. 5. Witness added that when he heard that the plaintiff had asked his daughter to marry him, he advised her to take him a short walk and drop him gently. Daily News, 1913.
Some way down the Brood Walk I perceiyed that I was tired and that my feet were heavy.
Wells, Country of the Blind p. 163.
e. This is a thing of no importance.
But I will not weary you with more of my experiences that day and the next. Wells, Country of the Blind p. 164.
f. Come here, my pet.



36
Nouns
874. On the common. case of nouns as the subject of the infinitive, the gerund, and the participle, see 352 ff., 435 ff., 531 ff., and 559 f. See also the chapter on the Conversion of nouns into adjectives, and the sections on Sentenee-Strueture.
875. The common case can be used both for the indirect and for the direct object (a). If the usual order (indirect object before direct) is deviated from, the indirect object is replaced by a prepositional adjunct with to, occasionally for; also when the two are separated (b).
a. I gave my brother the money.
She has bought her mother a dress for the money. "Will you cash me this cheque?
b. I gave the money to my brother, not to John. Will you cash this cheque for me?
To the beggar I gave a penny; to the wife a slice of bread and butter.
876. The common case is also used:
11 as a predicative (a) or semi-predicative (b) adjunct expressing such proporties of an object as size, colour, age, price, or the professions of persons.
a. The plank is not the right width.
The towers were exactly the same height.
At these times the sea was often a milky opal.
Peard, Madame's Grand-daughter p. 126. It lay to the left of this bridge that was the colour of stale blood. Sinister Street p. 855.
They generally paint their bodies all kinds of bright colours.
Sweet, Elementarbuch p. 68. Her father, Old Golonel Moray, was just that sort.
Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 2.
What price is that article? What (= what price) are potatoes to-day? What age is she? She might be any age bet ween twenty and forty.



Common Case
37
What trade is he?
What part of speech are these words?
b. Nowhere could I discern a cloud the size of a man's head. Gissing, Ryecroft p. 88.
She had hands the colour of a pickling cabbage.
Behind the altar painted on the piaster of the wall was the rood or crucifix the size of life.
There's a superstition in this country that people are free. Ever since I was a girl your age I've known that they are not. Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 37.
Why, since he had accepted his fate, should he pretend to judge the conduct of people his superiors in rank?
Meredith, Harrington ch. 13, p. 124.
2. in combinations of a class-noun and a proper name.
The planet Neptune. The River Danube. Gape Finisterre. Lake Erie. Mount Etna.
King Edward. The Emperor Charles V. Cardinal Newman.
The gasfitter Charles. Farmer Blaize. Constable Dempsey.
Lyly's dramas as well as his novel Euphues are written in a sort of ornarflental prose. Delmer, Eng. Lis. 73.
Nor is the title the Age of Anne more appropriate.
Athenaeum, 30/11, 12.
3. after numerals.
Six dozen pencils. i Pestilence swept off half his men.
There is ample shipping in German ports for the embarcation of a quarter of a million men. Times W. 16/10,14.
The myriad beautiful details. Athen. 38/3, 14.
The half dozen or so lives and reminiscences.
Mair, Eng. Lit. p. 140.
So you're playing at play-acting, young man? That's what nine-tenths the world is for ever doing in its daily life.
G. Cannan, Round the Corner.
On the first three-quarter page of these examples I find the following pronunciations. Robert Bridges, Essays I.



38
Nouns
877. The use of plenty with a uoun in the common case (without of) following, is called dialectal. by the editor of the Oxford English Dictionary. It is also used predicatively.
Although there are plenty other ideals I should prefer.
Stevenson.
Doubtless there are plenty other sources where the same material may be found. Athenaeum, 5/H, 1910, p. 563/2.
In the morning before office hours, at noon when business was plenty, and time scarce...
Stevenson, Dr. Jekyll ed. Schutt p. 22.
878. The function of the common case is chieflly shown by Wordorder and by Prepositions; see these chapters.
Genitive Case
Form ol the 879. The singular of some nouns, and the Genitive plurals that do not end in a hissing-sound (chiefly men, women, chüdren) have a genitive case?
The endings of the genitive are [ïz, z, s], according to the same principles as the plural of nouns (777):
[dzodzaz buk, 9 hosïz mein] Georgës book, a horse's mane;
[mai faoez haus, os tëldrenz toiz] my father's house, the chüdren's toys;
[robets buk, 9 kaats teil] Robert's book, a cat's tail.
880. Some words cannot occur in the genitive on account of their form. Such words are:
1. plurals in a hissing-sound: masters, cats.
2. nouns in [iz] and [ïz]: Socrates, Euripides, Bridges.
3. some adjectives used as nouns, viz. Swiss and the adjectives in -ese (see 826 and also 930, 2).
Words in a. hissing sound of three or more syllables do not take the ending e. g. Carruthers; eee 922.



GENITIVE GiSE
39
Group-Genitive 881. Although the endings of the genitive and of the plural are identical, they are essentially different. The genitive endings have a more independent character; this explains why compounds or word-groups always have the ending added to the last part.
My father-in-law's house1); King Edward's accession; John Lackland's folly; the Prince of Wales's recent tour; Miss Thomson's letter.
John and William's carriage; a quarter of an hour's ride. This did not satisfy the Emperor William's more ardent imagination. Times W. 7/8, '14.
Dr. Meyer also elucidates the tangled story of Gregory's and Sixtus V.'s measures against Elizabeth.
Times Lit. 4/5, '16.
The Genitive of Names of Persons
882. The genitive is chiefly used of names of persons. The personal genitive is used:
1. as a pre-genitive, i. e. before its headword.
2. as an independent genitive, i. e. not preceding its headword.
883. The relation of genitive and headword is essentially the same as that of a personal subject and a verbal predicate. Hence the relation cannot be defined by any exact formulas; compare John's friends, messenger, enemy, master, pupil, family, foïlowers, height, illness, wit, gratitude, train.
If the headword is the name of an object, the genitive may, and often does, express the possessor, as in John's new house; but this may mean that John is the architect. If the headword expresses (or suggests) an action, the genitive may
1) Hence the plural fathers-in-law could be used with a genitive ending: fathers-in-laio'»; but such forms do not seem to occur.



40
Nouns
denote the agent: John's speech. Less often it indicates the object of the action: John's accusers. These last two functions are often distinguished as the subjective and the objeetive genitive.
The objeetive genitive is chiefly found when the genitive precedes its headword, and is not common even there, except when the headword expresses the agent (John's accusers). See 1448, and 1464.
Pre-Genitive 884. A pre-genitive is used as an attributive adjunct to the following noun.
A joyous shout greeted Mr. Arnold as he placed little Louise in her nurse's arms.
Mrs. What's her name's perfidious conduct. Gonrad, Ghance.
Gonsider how little of it was known to Matthew Arnold's generation. g. Murray, Essays iii, 8.
Superior dress material for ladies' and children's wear.
In a small place like this there is a good deal of curiosity about other people's affaire. Sweet, Spoken English p. 74.
The men had a good time but the women's lives must have been deadly. Vachell, Quinneys' p. 151.
The blood rushed to Lily's forehead.
Wharton, House of Mirth, p. 99.
When she had been at Bowick about three months, a boy's leg had been broken, and she had nursed him.
Trollope, Dr. Wortle ch. 2.
We've come to see my mother's portrait ')•
Walpole, Duchess of Wrexe ch. 1.
885. A doublé pre-genitive is unusual. It is chiefly found when the first genitive forms a unit with the next word. In other cases a doublé pre-genitive is usually avoided by substituting the construction with of. Thus instead of saying my wife's nephew's speech we can say the speech of my wife's nephew.
1) i.e. the portrait representing my mother (objeetive genitive).



Genitive of Personal Names
41
A triple genitive is still rarer. It is an uneducated speaker who uses it in the last quotation.
At this point I began to despair of ever reaching The Limes, which was the name of Miss Spencer's father's house.
Vance ch. 15.
Ellen's friend's people. Wells, Harman ch. 4.
Lady Malloring, will you please let the Gaunts stay in their cottage and Tryst's wife's sister come to live with the chüdren and him? Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 12.
Two years ago Burrows's *) son's wife's nephew was floating paper beats in the front hall.
Mackenzie, Guy and Pauline ch. 1, p. 15.
886. The pre-genitive is also used in appositions.
Beowulf, who was a young man at the time of Hygelac, his uncle's, death. Essays V, 77.
On the genitive as the subject of the gerund, see 436 ff.
Independent m, . ,
Genitive öö7- ne independent genitive may be used:
1. to refer to a word mentioned in the sentence.
2. as a post-genitive, i. e. as an adjunct with of to a preceding noun.
3. ptedicatively.
4. absolutely, i. e. not referring to any noun mentioned, in the same functions as a common case.
888. The independent genitive is used when the headword is mentioned near enough to be understood. Oompare 1199. I declare, Gaudle, you seem to care no more for the child than if it was a stranger's. Jerrold.
If I wanted to make a boy love Homer, I should give him Pope's in preference to any other verse translation.
Omond, Essays.
1) [bAröuzïi]. See footnote to p. 192.



42
Nouns
But Hunrphrey's was not a nature that could long remain absorbed in thought. Montgomery, Misunderstood.
Goldwin Smith's is no longer a name to conjure with.
Athenaeum, 24/5, '13. The one thing a painted portrait cannot give is a man's voice. More's was clear and penetrating. Everyman, 6/12,'12. She put her arm through her mother's.
Hichens, Ambition ch. 9.
Post-genitive 889. In an expression like my father's house the headword house is made definite by the genitive. Hence the headword requires the definite article if we use an adjunct with of: the house of my father.
It should also be noted that the adjectives or adjective pronouns or other qualifying words preceding the genitive serve to qualify the genitive, and not the headword: in my father's house the word my qualifies father's and not house (881). It follows that an adjective-adjunct qualifying the head-word cannot precede the genitive, but must follow it. In my father's fine horses the genitive my father's is followed by the noun with its adjunct. But this order of words is not always possible, as in the case of articles and pronouns. We cannot say, è. g., my father's this house, my father's a pieture.
In that case the genitive must follow the headword with the preposition of: this house of my father's, a picture of my father's.
890. This construction, which we may call the postgenitive, is used when the headword is qualified (by an indefinite article, a numeral, a demonstrative or indefinite pronoun), or when the noun is'used in a general sense.
They were informed that a friend of the king's was suspected to be forcibly confined within the Gastle of Zenda.
Hope, Zenda.



Genitive Oase
48
This was a taste of Bernard Longueville's who had a relish for serious literature. Henry James.
This realism of Garlyle's gives a great charm to his histories and biographies. Birrell, Obiter Dicta p. 6.
I will, however, venture to take a sentence or two of Pater's. G. Murray, Essays.
The collection comprises in all 838 letters of Madame du Deffand's. Athenaeum.
No eloquence of her lover's could move her from this resolve. Braddon, In Great Waters.
"This comes of a man making such a will as that of Bold's", he continued. Trollope, Barchester Towers.
To me too it seems that if any work of Bunyan's is to be read in schools it should be his greatest work.
Prof. Firth, Journal of Engl. St. I. He would not have liked Tommy Grainger or Lonsdale to have rooms like this one of Hazlewood's. Sinister Street p. 582.
Soon after leaving school she admitted reading something of Gobbett's. Gaskell, Brontë ch. 7.
What Bremmil said and what Mrs. Bremmil did is no concern of any one's. Kipling, Plain Tales (T.) p. 22. Well, that wasn't bad sparring of Mel's *).
Meredith, Harrington p. 6. — and work of Mr. Noyes's could never altogether lack merit. — Athen. 17/4, '15.
These boys are friends of my brother's. "Is he a great friend of yours?" "No, but he is of my mother's1)."
Hichens, Am bit ion ch. 8.
891. Nouns preceded by a definite article are not seldom used with a post-genitive. In all of the following quotations the article has a dejctie- function (see 1218 ff.).
1) In this sentence, of Mel's is an adjunct to that rather than to sparring.
2) Note that the post-genitive is not used predicatively here, but like the genitive of 888: he is a great friend of my mother's. Compare the postpossessive in What business is it of yours f (§ 1094).



44
Nouns
I call particular attention to the following letter of Charlotte's, dated July 10th, 1846.
Gaskell, Life of G. Brontë ch. 14, p. 237.
She honestly loved orchestral music divorced from words. But the music of Claude's which she knew was joined with words, Hichens, Ambition ch. 17, p. 198.
Ancestry is, in fact, a matter concerning which the next observation of Rose's has some truth. Hope, Zend'a ch. 1.
Iphigenie is, perhaps, the only important work of Goethe's in which the lessons of Greece are faithfully applied.
Times Lit. 9/12, '20.
892. The post-genitive after nouns qualified by an interrogative pronoun is rarely found.
What enemy of Bruce's joined the English?
Van Neck, Easy Prose no. 16.
893. The post-genitive expresses the same relations as the pré-genitive. The objeetive relation, however, is rare. See 931.
Of course her world was very limited — yet no admirer of Jane's is hkely to complain of that. Lady Sackville,
Introduction to Jane Austen (Begent's Libr.) p. XII.
894. In literary English we occasionally find both the genitive and the pronoun every before the noun.
Her own apathy with regard to her husband had given way completely now to a desire to anticipate and meet Mr. Harman's every wish. Wells, Harman ch. 11, § 13.
Predlcatlve 895. The genitive of names of persons is also Genitive use(j predicatively. In some cases this use is identical with the independent genitive referring to a word in the sentence (888). Thus in This book is my brotWs the genitive may be interpreted as standing for my brother's book. But this interpretation is not always possible. See also footnote to 890.



Genitive Oase
45
Nature has denied him (i. e. Lord Curzon) the wit that is Lord Rosebery's. Athen. 17/7, '15.
He could not serve; he was too old for that; but his men and his money were the King's for this sacred undertaking.
Davis, Med. Europe p. 194.
(Hakluyt rode 200 miles to hear the story) from the mouth of its one survivor, Mr. Thomas Buts. And a moving story was Buts's to teil. Times Lit. 26/10, '16.
I consider the task my brother's, not mine.
Absolute Genitive 896. The genitive of names of persons is also used without a headword to denote places, especially buildings (houses, shops or firms, churches, schools, hospitals, etc).
The absolute genitive may be any part of the sentence (subject, object, etc.) like the common case (a). But it is especially used in prepositional adjuncts of place; the genitives of nouns expressing relationship (unele, friend, etc.) are exclusively so used. The absolute genitive may be accompanied by an apposition (6).
o. I spent the Ghristmas holidays at my uncle's.
Only the tobacconist's and the newspaper-shop in Fortess road were open. Pett Badge, Name of Garland.
Glosing the side door of Mastera's she went across to the kerb. ib.
An aunt of mine has a baker's and post-office combined in Somers Town. ib.
This is the only decent road there is about here, except the one that goes round by Gadbrook's.
Sweet, Spoken English p. 71.
With regard to Ripman's 'Sounds' Dent's will now only accept orders for this book when they are to be sent abroad.
Miss Dunstable thinks that she will be able to come to us for a couple of days after we leave the duke's.
Trollope, Framley ch. 3, p. 29.
Before the altar of St. Mary's. Grawford, Parish p. 197.
St. Paul's is a beautiful specimen of Wren's architecture.



46
Nouns
Millon was educated at St. Paul's.
b. She was going to Grimstead's, the bookseller of Hollingford l). Gaskell, Wives III p. 82.
The Genitive of Names of Animals
897. Names of animals are also used in the genitive. This genitive is always attributive. The genitive generally precedes its headword (a), but is occasionally found without, when the headword is found in another part of the sentence (b). The objeetive genitive does not occur.
a. The great enemy of small town birds is the cat; and the robin's nest is peculiarly exposed to cats' forays.
They had heard the clattering of a horse's hoofs down the mountain about midnight.
We found lark's eggs, woodpigeon's eggs, and a hundred kinds of eggs; and the big blackbird's nest was soon filled, and a thrush's nest besides. Sweet, Spoken English.
b. When I looked out of window, I thought I saw something white with long ears like a cat's. Sweet, Spoken English p. 69.
The Genitive in Literary English
898. In all styles of written English the attributive genitive is also used of non-personal nouns and collective nouns. It always precedes its headword. See 966 on Gender in Literary English. The artificial character of this genitive is shown by the last quotation.
The cloud's shape was grotesque. The Church's claims, revenues, ministrations. A beech-tree's huge intertwisted roots. For the most part, they left their country for their country's good. Academy.
It was this perfect correspondence with the average knowledge of life which partly explains the book's popularity. Whibley, Thackeray p. 195.
1) The types to Grimstead, the bookseller's and to Grimstead's, the bookseller's are instanced by Poutsma ch. 24 § 4.



The Genitive op Nouns of Measure
47
The friends and foes of the Spartans were to be Athens's friends and foes. Goodspeed, History p. 179.
Then he himself became envious of sleep, and undressed quickly like one who stands hot-footed by a lake's edge, eager for the water's cool. Sinister Street p. 423.
Here are labours of the erudite, exercised on every subject that falls within learning's scope. Gissing, Ryecroft ch. 22.
She was jealous on behalf of her sex; her sex's reputation seemed at stake.
Mr. "Wells is almost the only novelist we possess who dares to generalise boldly and examine the meaning of modern problems in Society's life. Nation, 12/7, '13.
The recent rise of the genitive with place-names in English, as in "London's Water-Supply", is mainly traceable to the headline '); but we have not yet arrived at Devonshire's Duke or Wight's Isle1). Times Lit. 6/4, 22.
899. In the higher literary language we occasionally find the genitive as an apposition to the headword, as in Brüain's isle for the isle of Britain. The construction would be impossible in the last examples of 898 because the words are not used as appositions.
The Genitive of Nouns of Measure
900. The genitive of other singular nouns than those denoting animate beings is used in a number of cases that are more or less standing expressions, although new forms may be made by analogy. Few of the characteristics of the regular genitive apply to these cases:
1. the nouns are names of measures, chiefly time or distance.
2. when the noun in the genitive denotes another measure than time or distance, the headword is usually abo a noun expressing measure: a pound's weight3).
1) i. e. newspaper headline.
2) But see 899.
3) In many cases the common case is used: a shilling book, a six-shilling book. See 924 on the Genitive and the Common Case.



48
Nouns
3. in many cases the equivalent construction with of cannot he used.
4. these genitives can only be used as attributive adjuncts to the following noun.
5. the headword is not made definite by the genitive; thus my father's book necessarily means the book of my father'), but a mile's walk is a walk of one mile.
6. the adjunct preceding the genitive does not necessarily belong to the genitive; thus in we here reprint, with a few addüüms, our. last week's list of books (Times Lit. 13/8, '14, p. 383/1) the possessive our qualifies list, and not the genitive. See also 914 on plural names of measures.
7. the genitive expresses none of the relations of the genitive of persons and animals (883).
We assented, and in an hour's time were at the outskirts of the town.
After an hour's steady work the men got the fire under.
Suddenly, without an instant's warning, he was surrounded by a crowd of yelling Indians.
He did not have a single vacation's rest before beginning again. Athenaeum, 8/8, 1908.
Shut your eyes, and open them very cautiously in a minute or so's time. Wells, Country of the Blind.
It was only a quarter of an hour's walk to Mr. Yule's habitation, a small house in a large garden.
Gissing, New Grub Street ch. 2.
We are going to the burial of our last year's sins.
Elizabeth p. 153.
901. The genitive is also found in some groups that do not give rise to analogical formations.
1) Compare also my father's three horses and three horses of my father's; the former is definite (the three h. of my f.), the latter indefinite (three horses of my father). When the post-genitive is used my father may have more than three horses. See also 933 f.



Genitive Oase in Compounds
49
the ship's crew; at one's wit's (occasionally wits') end; for.... ('s) sake, as in: for Charles's sake.
It may be noted that in the last expression the genitive is only used of nouns denoting persons which end in a hissing-sound. On such spellings as for your brother''s sake, see 922 and 927 on the Genitive and Common Case.
Genitive Case in Compounds
902. In discussing the post-genitive (889) we have seen that it is characteristic of the regular genitive (also of the genitive of nouns of measure: 900), that the words preceding the genitive qualify the noun in the genitive and not its headword. Oompare. further the following quotation.
.... hence we have the Cursor Mundi and the collection of Mystery plays, without which there would not have been in later times a Milton's Paradise Lost or perhaps even a George Herbert's Temple.
L. Toulmin Smith, Gorboduc, introduction.
903. Sometimes, however, the genitive with its headword have becoma an indivisible unit in thought; thus a lady's maid, a lavxyer's ehrk are compounds. This is easily seen when they are qualified by adjuncts: a good Imvyer's elerk, if lawyer's was a genitive in the ordinary sense, would mean the derk of o good lawyer; and five lady's maids clearly does not mean: the maids of five ladies.
Compare also the following quotations.
There was a Noah's flood of oratory yesterday.
Observer, 5/11, 22.
Again her rogue's eyes gleamed').
Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 10.
1) Compare ib. on the next page: Her rbgue eyes gleamed from vinder, a heavy frown.
Kruising*, Handbook II. Accidenee and Syntax. 2. 4



50
Nouns
(He) took his horseman's cloak and left his tent.
M. Arnold, Sohrab and Rustum 1. 9. The lady's hair no woman could possess without feeling it her pride. It was the daily theme of her lady's maid.
Meredith, Feverel ch. 13. Work or suffering found her listless and dejected, powerless and repining; but gaiety expanded her butterfly's wings.
Brontë, Vilette ch. 14. The giant's task of reconstruction that lies before us.
Times Ed. S. 12/7, '18. Miss Wylie has also a proper woman's hero in her Tristram.
Times Lit. 6/1, '16.
904. Sometimes the qualifiers preceding the genitive refer to the headword, and yet it is impossible to call the group a compound because the combination is only occasional. Thus we may speak of a compound in a little quiet, resolute clergyman's daughter (GaskeU, Life of 0. Brontë ch. 8), but that would be impossible in the seemingly parallel: the flighty Bishop's nieee (Times Lit. 30/7, '14).
905. Composition is also incomplete when the genitive can be replaced by an adjunct, especially one with as.
He entered the room in his miner's dress.
Shorthouse, Inglesant ch. 12. Mrs. Hale turned her face to the wall, and lay perfectly still in her mother's despair. Gaskell, North and South ch. 14. The tall stripling in his middy's uniform. ib. ch. 80.
906. The difference between ordinary attributive genitives and genitive-compounds is often clear from the stressing of these groups. For an attributive genitive and its headword have even stress; thus even stress is marked in Sweet's Primer of Spoken English for Ned's dog (p. 9), Ned's calls (p. 61), a pheasants rise (p. 61), the genüeman's dogwhisüe (p. 61), Bamsay's garden (p. 64), etc. But uneven stress in



Genitive Oase in Compounds
51
[leidïzmeid] lady's maid (ib. p. 81), also in bridesrnaid,, birdseye l); and in the genitives with nest and egg, although in this case the difference of stress is not so marked: [aulz nests, kükuz egz, dzeiz nests] with medium stress on the second element (Primer, p. 51, 52); but see 907. These groups with nest are also shown to be compounds by the relation of the qualifier preceding the genitive in my pheasanfs nest, where my qualifies nest. Another proof is the conversion of bird's nest into a verbal: to go bird's nesting.
907. Uneven stress is no absolute proof of composition, for it may be due to contrast.
Many think that legal reform is of necessity a lawyer's business and that a layman cannot understand, much less solve the problems of it. Edinb. Rev. April 1917.
908. Plural genitives being very rare (880), there are no compounds with them; in the following quotation this qualifies the headword, however, and not the genitive.
And Michael abruptly realized that all of them sitting at this freshmen's table were really schoolboys.
Sinister Street p. 544.
909. When real genitive-compounds are used in the plural the second element only is inflected (806).
I know I have not that much; and yet men set me down in their fool's books as a wise man.
Gaskell, North and South ch. 41. A syndicated system of baker's shops.
Wells, Harman ch. 5 § 4.
910. As the meaning of the elements forming a genitivecompound is never so completely lost as in other compounds
1) a kind of tobacco.



52
NOTJNS
we often find the first element spelt as a plural (with an apostrophe): ladies' maids (Meredith, Harrington ch. 4).
Every man's Library is certainly making giants' strides towards the satisfaction on his requirements. Times Lit. 23/4, '14.
Sparrows' and starlings' nests.... Cuckoo's eggs are very small for the size of the bird. Times W. 24/5, '18.
Unable to secure for her offspring the advantages of a respectable home in any other way, she (i.e. the cuckoo) places her eggs, one by one, in a series of other birds' nests. ib.
In the last quotation other clearly belongs to birds. See the next section.
Plural Attributive Nouns and Compounds
911. When plural nouns are used attributively in a meaning corresponding to those of the attributive genitive (883), they are often spelt with an apostrophe, but they are rarely such closely connected groups that we can speak of compounds.
Mr. Bob Sawyer's bachelors' party. Ward, Dickens p. 24. It's only a lovers' quarrel. Sweet, Elementarbuch no. 73 It tells the story of how three girls came to spend their holidays in an empty boys' school. Times Lit. 9/12, '15.
Similarly; the masters' commonroom, the mistresses' cloakroom.
As the common case is so closely connected in function with the genitive that an outward mark is feit to be necessary, it might be called a pro-genitive in these constructions. See 922 and 927. i ■
912. The same construction is used in the plural of genitivegroups that are not feit as compounds, such as a farmer's wife, a labourers cottage.
1) Even stress.



Plural Attributive nouns and Compounds
53
Stanley's three keepers' wives had just baked their annual rook pies. Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 5.
Most of the labourers' cottages ') about here are built in this style. Sweet, Spoken English p. 74.
"Besides, chaps' uncles don't get gone on —" Michael was going to add 'chaps' sisters' governesses', but somehow he feit the remark was all wrong, and he blushed the conclusion of the sentence. Sinister Street p. 163.
913. In all styles of written English plural attributive nottns denoting persons and animals are used in the same function as genitives, usually with an apostrophe.
Where both writers' characters are unlike human beings is in this — that they do not eren value anything decent.
Times Lit. 9/12, '15.
The Poles must learn to see their own faults as well as their enemies'. Stubbs, Lect. p. 17.
The following is the official translation of the Allies' Reply to the German Peace Note. Times W. 5/1, '17.
But we can only guess at the sandy trysting-place of Man Friday and Robinson Grusoe, and we are unlikely to explore on Shanks' mare the fabulous island of Monte Ghristo.
Times Lit. 30/7, '14.
By the side of horses' hoofs we also find horsehoofs: Soon
I hear the distant stamp of horsehoofs. Fairless, Road-Mender
II p. 13.
914. The genitive of nouns of measure has no such definite function as the ordinary genitive. After numerals these nouns generally take the plural form, which has no genitive. Hence there is much uncertainty about the writing of these plurals, the frequent combinations mostly being written with an apostrophe, the others without this mark of the 'genitive.'
1) Even stress.



54
Nouns
It's a seven hours' journey. Sidgwick, Severins, p. 96.
It was worth four years' salary. Wells, Country p. 78.
With three days' provisions and a canvas tent. ib. p. 74.
Captain Jarvie, a nine months' soldier of the heavy dragoon type'). Fergus Hume in Pears' Annual 1916.
"It may become my duty to ..." "Evict me?"
. .. "No, no, but I may have to threaten you to give you several months' notice.'* Punch, April '16.
Ton 'iano Avenue (which, five minutes' sharp walk from Masters's, took a winding course....)
Pett Ridge, Garland ch. 8.
It's nearly two hours' walk. Garvice, Staunch.
Twenty-five pounds' weight of biltong. Haggard, Salomon.
A shawl of about thirty shillings' value. Gaskell, Cranford.
There was well over a two-thirds majority. Times W.
The type of 'keenness' does not always make its possessor equal to the strain of two or three hours concentration in simultaneously reading and criticising a difficult book.
Blackwood's Magaz. Aug. 1912, p. 202.
After a short experience in the House, then an eighteen months spell out of it, Brindle had now been returned by a Midland borough. Patterson, Compton p. 147.
The three times regulation in regard to accidents rarely failed in Winnie's experience.
Pett Ridge, Name of Garland ch. III p. 51.
Will the six months recruits, who are at present so smart
gradually sink back, as the years recede, into the same old type whom we knew in the past? Academy 16/7, 1910.
He tells me querulously of a two hundred miles tramp since early spring, of search for work.
Fairless, Roadmender p. 16.
By a swift 30 miles night march. Times W. 19/1, '17.
At the end of a brilliant 100 miles march up the Tigris.
ib. 16/3, '17.
In their 110 miles' retreat from Kut. ib. ib.
The three miles sea zone. ib. 1917.
1) No apostrophe is called for when the addition of old changes the character of the adjunct:



NüMBEE AND OASE OF AtTEIBUTTVE NOUNS
55
915. We have seen that the genitives of plural names of measures not 'denoting time or distance, are followed by a headword related in meaning: apound's weight. When the headword is not so related plural nouns of measure are always written without the apostrophe.
Mr. Kipling began his career with paper-covered shilling books, but was soon persuaded by his publishers to adopt the six shillings form for fiction, and five shillings for verse from which he has rarely descended. Lit. World 1/8,1912.
It does not make two straws difference.
Shaw, Back to Methusaleh, IX.
916. In spite of the spelling with an apostrophe the plural is not a genitive. This ia shown by the use of the prop-word one, which never occurs after real genitives1). See 888 and 8976.
The higher course is a two years' one.
Times Ed. S. 8/8, 18.
Number and Case of Attributive Nouns
Names of 917. It has been shown, in the chapter on the Persons Number of Nouns, that attributive nouns generally have the singular (or neutral) form when the meaning is plural. We have also seen that the plural is generally used when the relation between the attributive noun and its headword is one of those expressed by the genitive in the singular (911 ff.).
918. We also find, however, that attributive nouns have
The eleven-weeks-old son of an engineer's fitter. Daily Mail 14/1, 22. A 9 years-old boy accidentally shot his brother dead. ib. Such a spelling as his sevèn-years' dead partner (Christmas Carol st. I) must be looked upon as a mistake. See also 924.
1) Poutsma quotes from Maarten Maartens (Joost Aveling): The festival is originally a children's one. If this is really English, it is not a case in point, for a children's festival illustrates 902 ff., not 884.



56
Nouns
a singular form although the meaning is distinctly plural, and the relation between the headword and its attributive noun is one of those that can be expressed by the genitive in the case of singular nouns. On the whole, however, the singular form seems to be especially used when the relation is not evidently one of those regularly expressed by a genitive, when the noun has such a form. When the Times (Lit. S. 7/10, 20) heads a review of collections of letters by German soldiers German Soldier Letters it certainly implies that such letters form a class by .itself and the contents of the article bear this out, for it is chiefly a comparison with similar English collections.
It is not always possible, perhaps, to explain the two forms in this way.
Thus Oonrad in Ohanee tells a story in which a Mr. and Mrs. Fyne occur; in connection with them he uses the following constructions:
1. the Fyne dog; the Fyne girl; the Fyne chüdren; the Fyne household; the Fyne girls; the Fyne cottage.
2. the Fynes' garden-gate, the Fynes' sitling-room; the Fynes' door.
It is clear that in both constructions the headword is qualified by a form (Fyne, or Fynes') that expresses 'belonging to, connected with the Fynes (= Mr. and Mrs. Fyne)1).
919. Compare further the following quotations; italics are mine.
In summer he would row up in his own wherry and land himself and carpet-bag direct on the Woodwards' lawn2).
Trollope, Three Glerks, p. 25.
1) I do not think that Conrad's foreign birth invalidates these quotations.
2) Mrs. Woodward and her daughters.



Number and Oase of Attributive Nouns
57
None of the Woodward circle were content thus to lose
[ wish that some one would write about Oxford as Anthony Trollope wrote about Barchester. Not so much from the
undergraduate as from the don's wifës point of view.
Barbara p. 22.
.... far likelier is it.... that the Brontë genius will come to be underrated. Flora Masson, The Brontës, p. 9.
Brontë novels, a Brontë story. ib. p. 10.
Many of the literary ioterests of the Plantagenet titnes are found already among the Anglo-Saxons. Ker, Eng. Lit. p. 56.
There is nothing in the Plantagenet reigns like Beowulf or the Maldon poem. ib. p. 57.
The pride of being ladies had something to do with it: the Brooke connections, though not exactly aristocratie, were unqueslionably "good". Eliot, Middlemarch ch. 1.
The younger Gïles chüdren were pupils at the school.
Ward, Dickens p. 3.
In the Trenor set (i. e. of Mr. and Mrs. T.).
Wharton, House of Mirth p. 24.
The Van Osburgh husbands (i. e. men married to the Miss Van Osburghs). ib. p. 174.
Contrast between the Quinney practices and the Honeybun precepts. Quinneys' p. 156.
He entered keenly into the undergraduate life of the College.
Athenaeum, 24/10, '14.
The acting of classical plays in schools and colleges was a main element in the Humanist theory of education.
Times Lit. 71, '15.
920. Sometimes we find the plural genitive and the plural common case in the same attributive function.
All students of the drama knew that I had long been collecting materials, not only on the Blackfriars -but particularly on the various chüdren companies.
Wallace, Evolution p. IX.
their friend.
ib p. 170.



58
Nouns
"While workingin 1902- 7 on the history of various children's companies. P- 2.
The struggle belween the chüdreris companies and the men's companies. Athenaeum, 2/11, 12.
921. When an attributive noun has a singular meaning, it may have the form of the genitive or the common case. In discussing the use of the genitive of persons we have seen what meanings are expressed by this form.
922. There are some singular nouns, however, that cannot take a genitive case on account of their form (880). These nouns, ending in [ïz, iz] are sometimes used attributively in the same function as a genitive. Some writers also add 's although few, if any, are likely to pronounce a real ending: such forms as Aristophanes's, Bridges's do not really stand for [aerïs'tofonizïz, brldzïzïz] but are spellings that help to suggest the genitive-function. The longer names in a hissingsound do not take [ïz], even though they do not end in [ïz] or [iz]: George Carruthers' first day at school would be [kerAfoz]. Such singular common cases in a hissing-sound that are clearly feit to have the function of a genitive may be called pro-genitives, as well as the attributive plurals (see 911).
Pears' Soap, also Pear's Soap and Pears's Soap ').
Mr. Bridges's Essay was written more than twenty years ag0. Times Lit. 19/1, '17.
Socrates's face. Athen. 6/7, 12, p. 6.
Euripides's position. ib. p. 5.
In Middle English the genitive ending was often dropped after hiss-consonants in foreign words, as it still is in such . genitives as Aeneas'. Sweet, Pr. of Hist. Gr. p. 57.
923. It seems evident, too, that the genitive ending after a hissing-sound is purposely avoided in the following passage.
1) Perhaps Pear's is simply a mislake. The name of the flrm is Messrs. Pears.



Number and Oase of Attbibüttve Nouns
59
There are certain natures, such as that of Felix, to whom the claims and exercise of authority are abhorrent— There are other natures, such as SheiMs who refuse....
Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 34.
Nouns of 924. It has been shown that attributive nouns Measure preceded by numerals generally have the singular or neutral form (846), and that nouns of time and distance form an exception in taking the plural form (848 and 914). But we also find the singular form of these nouns in attributive use.
Are you game for a six-mile trudge, Watson?
Gonan Doyle.
Then came a general lighting of pipes and cigars, and oü we started for another Walk through lanes and wood to Gobham, a good six-mile business.
Sir W. Hardman, quoted Jerrold, Meredith p. 11.
He reached home damp and weary enough after his ten-mile Walk. Hardy, Return of the Native Hl ch. 6.
I was chiefly busy that day negotiating a ninety-nine year building lease. Wells, Country of the Blind p. 409.
The smile of Felix had never been more whimsically employed than during that ten-day visit.
Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 16.
But even on this 50-mile stretch of front the perils and incessant hostility of winter have taken their toll of life and limb. Times W. 16/3, '17.
Gompare also:
(She) is serving a life sentence for the murder of her thirteen months old baby girl. Lloyd's Sunday News 25/6, 22. Rescuing a three-year-old baby girl. ib. ib.
925. The difference between
1. a three-mile journey and
2. a three miles' journey



60
Nouns
seems to be that 1. is more of a compound (hence also the hyphen), and used to denote a kind of journey (compare a two-year-old horse); whereas 2. applies to a special case:
It will be a three miles' journey if you want to call upon them.
So we went on, looking into everything, laughing, wondering every step of our five mile journey.
Sweet, Spoken English p. 54.
For the same reason Lord Leverhulme gave to his book the title The Six-Hbur Day and other Industrial Questions.
926. Singular nouns almost invariably take the form of the genitive if they denote time or the distance to be covered by a traveller.
an hour's journey. To-Day's Standard,
a single vacation's rest, etc. Last Year's Who's Who.
But in the following case the genitive would be unidiomatic.
Between Bullecourt and Queant, a little west of the Cambrai battlefield, the enemy attacked strongly yesterday on a mile front. Times W. 21/12, 17.
927. In combination with sake non-personal nouns never have a genitive ending, although an apostrophe is sometimes written, occasionally even '«.
for goodness sake.
for old acquaintance' sake.
. for his oath's sake. Green, Short Hist. ch. 1 sec. 2.
Al these forms and spellings may be called pro-genitives; see 911 and 922.
928. See further the chapter on Gbnversion of Nouns.



Attributive Genitive and Prepositional Adjunct
61
Attributive Genitive and Prepositional Adjunct
929. Instead of the attributive genitive we also find a prepositional adjunct with of. This construction is especially used:
1. with plural nouns in a hissing-sound:
the houses of our fathers; this is more usual than our fathers' houses. See also the examples of plural attributive nouns in 883.
2. When the headword denotes an act ion of which the qualifying word is the object:
He undertook the defence of my father. In literary English we also find: He undertook my father's defence; see 883. Compare:
I heard not long ago of an eminent lawyer, who had paid a couple of hundred per annum- for his son's instruction in the art pf fiction.
Meanwhile, Lyttelton's loss, following upon that of George Wyndham, deprives the Opposition of two conspicuous leaders.
Nation, 12/7, '13.
In spoken English my father's defence would usually be taken to mean that my father defended himself (or somebody else), i. e. as a subjective genitive.
Note that the objeetive genitive is quite common when the headword denotes the agent. In that case there. can usually be no ambiguity: my father's accusers, pursuers, etc.
Wordsworth's readers know how to read him, and what to expecl to find. Magnus, Primer.
3. with longer groups of wörds.
The longer the group the greater the tendency to use the prepositional equivalent, especially in literary English. An extreme case of a group-genitive is the man I saw yesterday's father; this verges on the ridiculous, however, and would certainly never be used in serious writing. Even



62
Nouns
such group-genitives as James 'the SeconoVs reign, although heard in colloquial English, are avoided in writing:
"When the Estates of the Realm declared the throne of James the Second to be vacant, they did not seek to justify the act by any theories of the right of resistance, or by any doctrines of the rigbt of man. It was enough that, three hundred years before, the Estates of the Realm had declared the throne of Richard the Second to be vacant. 4. in other cases.
As it should do, the death of Nelson inspires Mr. Hardy; and in the part which relates thereto we find his versification at its best. Edinb. Rev. April 1908, p. 433.
While mamma still hesitated what to think and what to do, the street-gate was thrown open, and the father of Violet and Peony appeared.... Hawthorne, Snow-Image.
The doubtful legitimacy of such rough coercion did not disturb the mind of Venn.
Hardy, Return of the Native IV ch. 5.
930. The prepositional adjunct must be used:
1. with nouns denoting things.
The scène was lit by the long rays of the afternoon sun. The legs of the table are quite grey with dust.
On the genitive of non-personal nouns in written English, see 898.
2. with collective nouns and with adjectives and participles used as nouns.
It is the fault of the public.
To look after the bodily as well as spiritual welfare of the poor.
People has a genitive people's but it differs from the other collectives in not ha ving the article; compare also 974.
Sometimes the conversion of adjectives or participlés is so complete that the word is practically a noun. Hence we find



Post-Genitive and Prepositional Adjunct
63
the deceased's relative». But such a construction is not used in spoken English.
3. when the noun is qualified by an adjunct that cannot precede the noun, or by a clause.
We regret to announce the death of Mr. A. B., aged 52. This is the overcoat of the boy who came to see you last night.
Post-Genitive and Prepositional Adjunct
931. We often find an adjunct with of in the same function as a post-genitive. This construction is necessary when the noun has no genitive, as in the last of the following quotations.
As a young man, fresh from the University, Swift became private secretary to Sir William Temple, a retired statesman and a friend of William UI. Delmer, Eng. Lit., p. 101.
In 1764 Goldsmith's poem The Traveller came out and made him famous. He became a close friend of Dr. Johnson and helped him to found the celebrated Literary Club.
ib. p. 112.
Another remark of Goleridge is rather curious to read at the present day. G. Murray, Essays III, p. 11.
Morier himself — we judge from the correspondence, not from any praise of Mrs. Wemyss — was singularly fitted for a more conspicuous position than that which he actually held.
Daily News.
It was this remark of Dr. Thorpe that first suggesled to me his view that we afterwards conversed so much about.
Vance, ch. 18 p. 178. At these words of Mr. Povey her cheeks seemed to fill out like plump apples. Bennett, Old W. Tale I, ch. 2, § 1.
(They) stand out in exquisite reliëf from the deep shadows and wayward lines of others which call to mind some of the portraits of Bembrandt.
Gaskell, Life of G. Brontë ch. 15 p. 242. .



64
Nouns
With uplifted finger he was going on to impress them with another lesson: that in the battles which would be sure to await them, they must be warned by this error of their fathers never to be over-hasty or over-confident. Allen, Doctor.
932. A comparison of these quotations with those in 890 will show that there is often no diflerence in meaning between the two constructions.
We sometimes even find the construction of 930 when a misunderstanding would be possible if the context did not prevent it, as in the following:
(She) smiled at some artless tale of Mr. Powell.
Conrad, Chance II, 184.
Here it is the context only that shows us that Mr. P. tells the tale. Apart from the context it might mean that Mr, P. was the subject of the tale.
On the other hand the objeetive post-genitive is extremely rare; even the example in 893 may be interpreted as a subjective genitive. The post-genitive would often be objectionable; if. introduced in the following quotation it would cause uunecessary ambiguity.
It is no criticism of Mr. Massey to say that, even for those who have a knowledge of the ground and the force, it is not easy to read all his account intelligently. Times Lit. 16/9, '20.
Compare the following quotation.
This kinematographic world is, of course, no peculiar discovery of Gyp's. ib.
933. Sometimes there seems to be a real difierence between the two constructions so that a writer chooses one construction in one case, the other construction in the next.
1. Miss Enefer explained to Winnie that such was the power of control she now had over her fiancé, owing to the imminent approach of marriage, that the lifting of a little



Post-Genitive and Prepositional Adjunct
65
finger would send him, if a friend of Miss Enefer so desired, to the farthermost corners of the earth.
Pett Ridge, Garland, ch. XII, p. 201.
2 when an old schoolfellow of Miss Enefer's asked
permission to come up to be introduced. ib.
It would seem that the common case Enefer is used in the first sentence because, the case being entirely hypothetical, the genitive would make it too definite. For the post-genitive often, though not necessarily, suggests that there are more specimens of the thing or person expressed by the headword. For this reason the post-genitive is quite natural in the second sentence: Miss Enefer necessarily had more than one schoolfellow, and the word schoolfellow naturally calls up the idea of a number of fellow-pupils.
934. Sometimes the post-genitive seems to be purposely avoided because it might suggest numbers.
Michael was anxious to meet this man who had evidently been a very intimate friend of his father.
Sinister Street p. 557.
935. It is probably for the same reason that the postpossessive in this kushand of yours is somewhat humorous; it seems to suggest the possibility of there being more husbands than one for the person addressed. See also 1186.
It should be understood, however, that the post-genitive does not necessarily suggest numbers. This is shown by some of the examples quoted in 890, and also by the following.
Hence the long popularity of that Magdalen of Titian's who, as Ruskin said, looks as if she hoped to get to heaven by dint of her personal charms. Times Lit. 2/11 22.
936. A partitive meaning can be avoided by equivalent constructions with on the part of, and with. See 937.
Krüisinoa, Handbook II. Accidence and Syntax. 2. 5



66
Nouns
It was a happy inspiration on the part of Mr. "Wilson to produce this volume. Times Lit. 27/5, '16.
The sketches are not, it is hardly necessary to say, profound; but it is rather more remarkable that they so seldom, if ever, show any design on the writer's part to make them so. Hawthorne, Twice-Told Tales, Everyman Pref. p. XV.
It was habit with Scrooge... to put his hands in his breeches' pockets. (see Poutsma ch. 24 p. 82).
Predicative Genitive and Prepositional Adjunct
937. Instead of the predicative genitive we also find the demonstratives that and those with an o/-adjunct; see the sections on Demonstrative Pronouns.
When the meaning is not one of those expressed by a genitive (883), another construction is necessary even in the case of names of persons. See 936.
When any dispute arises as to the election of a guardian, it is the province of the Local Government Board to decide the matter. Chalmers, Local Government p. 57.
The rapidity of her (a girl's) glide into this position was that of a kingfisher — its noiselessness that of a hawk.
Hardy, Madding Crowd, ch. 3.
Absolute Genitive and Common Case
938. The use of the singular common case to denote buildings is only possible in prepositional adjuncts, and even then it is rare.
I wonder where he got it. It could hardly be at a common chemist. Gonrad, Chance II 241.
All the pictures at Sully and Co are excellent of their kind. Academy, 25/11, 1905.
939. Plural nouns are often used in this function, sometimes with an apostrophe, sometimes without.
Besides being thus engaged, the plaintiff worked at Messrs. Suttons, the carriers. Times 2/8, 15.



Gender
67
(The Square) contained five public-houses, a bank, a barber's, a confectioner's, three grocers', two chemists', an ironmonger's, a clothier's, and five drapers'.
Bennett, Old Wives' Tale, I, ch. I § i.
Gender
940. English grammar denotes by the term gender a olassification of nouns according to the agreement between the singular noun and the personal and possessive pronouns.
A noun is called masculine if the singular is usually Teferred to by means of the pronouns he, him, his.
A noun is called feminine if the referring pronouns are she, her, hers. BUIS
A noun is called neut er if the referring pronouns are it, its.
941. The gender of English nouns depends exclusively upon their meaning, not on their form. Nouns are classified as denoting what is animate or inanimate. To the first class belong names of persons, also frequently names of animals. To the inanimate class belong all the other nouns. Compare the use of the genitive.
Animate nouns have a personal (i. e. masculine or feminine) gender; inanimate nouns are neuter. It is possible, however, for personal nouns to be treated as inanimate, for inanimate nouns to be treated as personal.
In many European languages, such as Dutch, German, and French, gender is largely traditional The gender of English nouns, on the contrary, seems to be free from traditional elements; it is a living olassification of nouns.
1) As to these (and-other Indogermanic) languages, it is the 'attributive' gender that is traditional; the 'referring' gender consequentiy often contradiets it. For Dutch, see my Grammar of Modem Dutch.



68
Nouns
Nouns denoting Persons
942. The names of male persons are masculine; the names of female persons are feminine.
Teil William to clear his tahle.
Won't you help your sister to lace her boots?
The teacher praised her pupils.
The author has noted this, for she likens the horns (viz. of the animal hunted) to those of the bharal. Athenaeum.
943. The words child, baby, twin are usually masculine, or feminine, according to the sex (a). When speaking of children without distinguishing the sex the masculine pronouns are also used (b). See 952, 957, 964, 965.
a. We'11 have the table drawn away from the fire, and baby can lie on his shawl on the hearthrug while we're ha ving tea. Bennett, Old Wives' Tale II ch. 3, § 1.
The baby gave hand-signals with the aid of his mother.
Pett Ridge, Garland p. 7. He wts doing this when a child came skipping joyously across the common, and pushing her way up to him through the circle of his listeners, handed him a note.
Allen, Choir Invisible.
b. A baby should have one bath every day, and if strong he may have two. The Child (see 951).
It referring 944. Nouns denoting persons, however, may to persons sometimes sink to the level of nouns denoting things, either because the person is unknown or vaguely thought of (945 ff.) or because the person is considered a negligible quantity (951 f.). Compare the similar use of so, it, that, and what (1046 ff., 1113, 1184 and 1195).
The use of the neuter pronouns to refer to nouns denoting persons is the clearest proof that English gender depends upon meaning: the pronoun does not really refer to the noun but to the idea in the speaker's mind.



Gender of Nouns denoting persons
69
945. We use it in referring to one person spoken of before when the sentence simply serves to identify the person, when it answers the question, 'Who is it?'.
'Do you see,' he would say for example, 'that Gaterham has been talking about our stuff at the Church Association?' — 'Dear mei' said Bensington, 'that's a cousin of the Prime Minister, isn't it?' Wells, Good of the Gods.
She had seen a man running through the woods some distance off and knew that it was Mortimore.
Phillpotts, Beacon I ch. 10 p. 86.
Michael's eye was caught as he spoke by a man he knew. It was Mr. St. Erth, the second partner in the firm.
Sidgwick, Severins ch. 4, p. 34.
As he went along Mr. Purcey said: "That's the young — the er — model I met in your wife's studio, isn't it? Pretty girl!" Galsworthy, Fraternity ch. 31, p. 27.
946. This use of it should not be confused with the use of it as a formal subject, as in It is my father that said so. See 1018.
947. Se, she are used when the sentence is descriptive, i. e. when it serves to give information about the person referred to, so that it treats of the question: "What is he, she?"
I have never seen his wife; I only know she isanEnglishwoman.
UI should like to make the artist's acquaintance," said the senator. The cook withdrew, assuring his master that his wish would be gratified. In a few minutes he returned, leading in the artist. — He was a little peasant-boy, about ten years old, meanly clad, for his parents were poor.
Van Neck, Easy Prose.
On nearer approach, he was still more surprised' at the singularity of the stranger's appearance. He was a short,



70
Nouns
square-built old fellow, with thick bushy hair and a grizzled beard\ W. Irving, Sketch-Book, p. 39.
I will first introducé our father, as seems suitable. He is Mr. John Trent of the Minnebiac Planing Mills.
Cotes, Cinderella ch. 1.
948. Compare also the use of it and he in the following passages
"Now, do you think the man you saw might have been Jules?"
"I hadn't previously thought of him as being Jules, but immediately you mentioned the name I somehow knew that he was. Yes, I am sure it was Jules."
A. Bennett, Grand Babyion ch. 23.
"Mamma, there's a man at the gate wanting to come in," said Jane. "I think he 's a clergyman."
Mr. Crawley immediately raised his head, though he did not at once leave his chair. Mrs. Crawley weut to the window, and recognised the reverend visitor. «My dear, it is that Mr. Thumble, who is so much with the bishop."
Trollope, Last Chronicle of Barset ch. XIII, p. 108.
949. It may be noted that it is sometimes possible to use it or he, she, according to the idea the speaker wishes to convey. To the question "Who is that boy?" the answer may be: "It is a cousin of mine"; but when the speaker thinks of the information he gives about the boy by mentioning his relationship to himself he would say: "He is a cousin of mine."
In "Confidence", by Henry James, an American is sketching a picturesque corner when a young lady steps out of the church and places herself in the very centre of his foreground.
1) A very instructive passage will be found in Anthony Hope's Prisoner of Zenda, Chapter XX (the end). See als Bennett, Old Wives' Tale I ch. 1 § 2 p. 29: He was Mr. Povey, a person universally esteemed, etc; also ib. IV ch. 2, \ 1, p. 458: A man came up to me at Eusten, etc.



Gender of Nouns denoting persons
71
He resolves to put her into his sketch, but before the sketch is finished she moves to go away. At his request she consents to pose. ".... she posed admirably; she was a fine creature to paint. Her prettiness inspired him, and also her audacity, as he was content to regard it for the moment. He wondered about her — who she was, and what she was...." — In this case the question 'who she was' clearly means much more than a wish to know the lady's name only; she is used because the painter did npt regard her any more as an absolutely unknown quantity.
950. We occasionally find the masculine or feminine pronoun where we should expect it. Perhaps he is used because the writer had a vivid image in his mind of the person mentioned in the words immediately preceding. This would also explain why in the first of the following quotations he is used in the first place, but in the second, when there has been time for the image to fade, the pronoun is it.
Suddenly there came the man. Some say he was Mr. E. V. Lucas, an author whom we trust it is no discourtesy to call celebrated. Others say it was Mr. Grant Richards, the wellknown publisher. Athenaeum.
Certainty can never be got in the matter of Plataeae; but we have here a consistent and reasonable account, and one that reflects the greatest credit on the general who planned the battle. Who was he? Dr. Macan suggests Themistocles.
Athenaeum.
.. . a note from John Gray, saying that he found them (viz. a bundie of lady's clothes) in the public road yesterday, and asking me to send them at once to the owner, if I should hear who she was; if not to advertisethem '). Allen,Choir.
951. If the sex of chüdren is not known or not regarded, words like child and baby are used as neuter nouns.
1) This sentence may also be an at tempt at imaginary grammatical correctness.



72
Nouns
The Child: A Medical Guide to its Care and Management (title of a book).
Would be M. P.: "I never could guess the babies's sexes. Ended by calling them all 'It'." (That's why he lost ■).
Punch.
952. In familiar English names of persons are used as neuter nouns to express contempt or endeajment. The contempt or endearment, of course, consists in treating persons as if they belonged to the category of things; see also the last quotation of 951, and also 956.
"Where did ye find it?" asked Mord Em'ly of Miss Gilliken, with a satirical accent. —
"Who are you calling 'it'?" demanded Mr. Barden aggressively. "P'r'aps you'11 kindly call me 'im' and not 'it'."
W. Pett Ridge, Mord Em'ly. After mörning school I said to Broadbent, as we strolied down to the playing field, "well, what do you think of it?"
(viz. of the new master)."Looks as if it won't stand any rot," replied he in an aggrieved tone of voice.
Boy's Own Paper, 31/8, 1912, p. 761. "Ay, ay! as large as life; and missy played the hostess. What a cenceited doll it is!" Brontë, Villette, ch. 24, p. 275.
"What's the matter, sweet one?" coming up and caressing Molly. "Is it worrying itself over that letter?"
Gaskell, Wives III p. 69 f. Vivie. — You know what Mrs. Alison's suppers are. (She turns to Frank and pets him) Poor Frank! was all the beef gone? did it get nothing but bread and cheese and gingerbeer?
Shaw, Mrs. Warren's Profession.
Collective Nouns 953. For the pronouns used to refer to collective nouns see the chapter on Concord of Number.
1) i.e. the mothers were offended that he treated the chüdren as inanimate.



Gendeb of Nouns denoting Animals
73
Nouns denoting Animals
954. All names of animals may be used as neuter nouns.
He jumped down to see how the young condor was faring in its cage covered by sacking.
Vachell, Spragge's Canyon p. 18. A hen which had laid its thousandth egg.
955. Names of animals may also have a personal gender. This is naturally frequent in the case of domestic animals, which often show their personal character by having a proper name. In such a case the choice of masculine or feminine depends on sex.
A mare with her young.
The farmer whistled, and the mare came trotting up with her foal beside her. A goat with her two little kids.
While they were getting the furniture and stores out of the bnilding, old Tom, the housecat, who had for five years kept the place free from mice, came tearing down the main slaircase with his coat ablaze. He rushed out on to the lawn where a policeman shot him to end his misery.
956. The personal feeling for the animal may be the very reason for using the neuter pronoun, according to 951.
She exclaimed, "Poor, sweet Carlol Pm forgetting him. Come downstairs with me, poor ittie doggie, and itshallhave its tea. It shall!" Gaskell, Granford p. 105.
957. Names of animals also have a personal gender without sex being thought of. These nouns are usually masculine, such as horse, dog, elephant, lion, bufalo, fish(a); compare 943 b. The feminine gender is far less frequent and may be due to the usually female sex of the animal, as in the case of cat, perhaps also of parrot (6).



74
Nouns
a. The haunls of the buffalo are in the hottest parts of Ceylon. He is about the size of a large ox.
The cold seems to take all the courage out of the thrush, while it puts the blackbird on his mettle.
Down the road there came in a drowsy amble an old white horse, his polished coat shining like silver when he crossed an expanse of sunlight, fading into spectral paieness when he passed under the rayless trees.
Allen, Ghoir Invisible.
A society that has no knowledge of theosophy need have no name for it; aborigines that had never seen or heard of a horse were compelled to invent or borrow a word for the animal when they made his acquaintance.
Sapir, Language p. 234.
The most tormenting and dangerous of the two evils is the fly. Some of us came here fully prepared against the mosquito only to find there is no tracé of him. But the fly abounds in millions. From dawn to sunset he comes to torment your life. He swoops down in brigades upon your meals and altogether obliterates your plate. Times 7/8,'15.
Had the little beetle that sailed across my path acted in such a way that he deserved his fate?
Benson, Thread of Gold p. 54.
Then, on a sudden, a trout is hooked, and a good one, six ounces for certain. He is beaten; pull him in and lift him out.
b. The cat was curling herself up in her basket.
A parrot can talk like a man: she can repeat whole sentences, and knows what they mean. Sweet, Element, no. 23.
958. It might also be considered as a mark of gender that the relative pronoun may be either who or which when the antecedent is the name of a person. See the sections on Relative Pronouns.
Other Nouns
959. All nouns that do not denote persons or animals are usually neuter.



Gender oe Other Nouns
75
The table is in the way: put it into the corner. He had no belief in the modern theory of the State — that it is omnipotent and may recognize no limits but its own will.
Athen., -18/1, 1908. English literature is very old. It is in fact the oldest of all the modern literatures of Europe. Its beginnings date from as far back as the seventh century.
Delmer, Eng. Lit. p. 1.
960. Names of ships and machines are often used as feminine nouns: ahip, schooner, frigate, maü, steamer, boat, engine, train, locomotive, motor, balloon, aeroplane, etc. The last quotation refers to a piano which is being moved.
In such a fearful fog, on the morning of the 20th of June, 1822, a small schooner, the Drahe, struck suddenly upon a rock, and almost immediately feil over on her side, the waves breaking over her. Her commander, Captain Baker, ordered her masls to be cut away, in hopes of lightening her so that she might right herself, but in vain. One boat was washed away, another upset as soon as she was launched.
"You don't allow any lime for the motor to break down," I said. — "I don't hope that she will break down."
Williamson, The Botor-Chaperon p. 34.
In the evening it was announced that an accident had happened similar to that which happened to our own "NuIIi Secundus" (viz. a balloon). But "Nulli Secundus" made herself ridiculous; the "Zeppelin" became tragic. She broke away from her mooring ropes, took fire, and disappeared into the air- Sat. Rev. 8/8, 1908.
I saw the Ben Franklin standing on the side-track with st'3am up just as we started. From the way she overhauls us, there can't be much of a train behind her.
As it was, the driver of the taxi... sat down again in the saddle and proceeded to let her out a bit further.
Snaith, Principal Girl, p. 29.
The train is late, Robert, isn't she?
Hunt, White Rose p. 233.



76
Nouns
Here we engaged our punt, a charming light one with ample cushions. The Pons Asinorum was ours to have and to hold as long as we chose to keep her. I suppose one does speak of a punt as 'she' in spite of its very unfeminine appearance. Barbara, p. 19.
Then "Damn!" cried a Voice. "Steady on my feet, can't yeh? Bit more to the right. Whoal Up your end a bit. At's it. When was she tuned last? Give us a scale."
Thomas Burke, Nights in Town p. 134.
961. These names of things are also often used as neuter nouns.
A ship is classed according to its tonnage l).
That engine was just as our own, and if it was without a train attached, as Jake supposed, might easily gain on us, as it seemed to be doing.
962. The feminine gender of names of machines and ships is due to their being thought of as animate beings (persons)» in the first place by sailors. This is also evidently the reason why names of plants have a personal gender in the language of a gardener like the vicar in Mr. Compton Mackenzie's Guy and Pauline, even though the choice between masculine and feminine may depend upon the gender of the word in Latin.
He nodded cheerfully to Guy: "Seen Vartani4)? Youknow he's that pale blue fellow from Nazareth. Very often he's a washy lilac, but this is genuinely blue."
"No, I don't think I noticed it — him, I mean," said Guy apologetically. ch. 2 p. 69.
Pauline rushed to embrace him, and he without a word led her to see where on a sunny bank Greek anemones had opened their deep-blue stars.
1) The unemotional character of such a statement as this would hardly permit of treating ship as animate.
2) A flower.



Gender op Other Nouns
77
"Blanda," he whispered. "And I've neyer known her deep in colour." p. 103.
The technical origin of this personal gender is . also suggested by the following quotation.
The coachman had already replied, 'Yes, he'd taken her through it,' — meaning by Her the coach, — if so be as George would stand by him.' Dickens, The Holly Tree,
in Select English Short Stories II p. 113.
963. We also find the twofold gender of the same word in two suceessive sentences; it may be a mixture of professional and non-professional language (969), but in the following instance the personal gender seems to be used because the car is thought of as animate (a friend or a companion).
As we were returning from Gettinje to Cattaro, the steeringgear of my Mercédès (viz. a motor-car) suddenly broke at a corner, with the result that the car butted into and partly through a parapet, and finally stopped with its front portion protruding over a precipice. The windings of the military road to Cattaro thus became for the car an irremeabilis error, and we had to leave her until such time as she should be repaired. Oxf. and Camb. Rev. no. 5.
964. There seems to be a tendency, however, towards the masculine gender for names of artificial (never natural) objects, but chiefly in familiar conversation, so that printed examples are rare *). Such nouns are watch, pipe, kite, ball (in playing cricket); I have even heard the pronoun him in reference to a chemical tabloid: There, is a little bit undissolved still. I can see him. The explanation is that the thing is thought of as aDimate2), but of course, there is no question of conscious personification here, neither is the use professional in its origin.
1) It is the rule in some dialects. See also 943b. 3) Hence the use is emotional (941).



78
Nouns
And look at those furnaces of mine, how they rise upon us as we come down the hill. That to the right is my pet— seventy feet of him. I packed him myself, and he's bottled away cheerfully with iron in his guts for five long years. I've a particular fancy for him. Wells, Country p. 32.
"Never mind looking at the desk now. We'11 do him toy morrow De Morgan, Vance, ch. 36.
965. Even names of ships and machines are sometimes masculine instead of feminine. See 943b.
The "fragile" submarine does not fare well in attacks upon any thing which can hit back. Out of 100 ships armed with a single gun, which he assails some 70 to 75 beat him off and escape, while out of 100 unarmed ships 74 become his victims. Times W. 2/3, '17.
It is the féte of the small car. And there he goes, dozens of him, nipping quietly and sweetly along the dustless surface.
ib. 17/4, '14.
Gender in Literary English
966. In literary English names of things and ideas may take the personal, i. e. the masculine or feminine, gender. See 898 on the genitive.
In many cases the gender depends on the gender the corres- > ponding word has in Latin. Hence names of countries are usually feminine, whereas names of rivers are mostly masculine.
In the thirteenth century the Church was seen at her best.
Constitutional Essays p. 334.
At such times Liberty must be saved by deeds if she is to be saved at all. Times W. 21/9, '17.
Out of doors Nature wore her mildest, most beneficent aspect. She evidently cared nothing for the squalid tragedies of human fate. Her hills were bathed in gentle light. Her
1) i.e. examine it.



Gender in Literary English
79
sunshine lay warm along the cottage fronts. In the gardens her hopeful bees, cheated into thoughts of summer, droned round the pale mauves and purples of what was left of starworts Princess Priscilla p. 278.
Our differences are emphasized by our propinquity, and perhaps France consults her own temper best in choosing alliances at a distance. Little as she knows England, she knows less of Russia, and happily mistakes her ignorance for sympathy. Whibley, Thackeray, p. 54.
Autumn is here and it is already late. He has painted the hedges russet and gold, scarlet and black, and a tangle of grey. Fairless, Road-Mender VI p. 55.
967. Names of things, even when personified, do not necessarily take a personal gender.
The British School at Athens and its younger sister, the British School at Rome. Times W.
Other cities pat on their best clothes in summer, but New York seems to sit in its shirt-sleeves.
Wharton, House of Mirth p. 3.
968. Names of celestial bodies are masculine or feminine according to the person in Greek or Latin mythology from whom they derive their names. For this reason Venus is feminine, Mars is masculine. The word sun is masculine because the corresponding Latin word has that gender. For the same reason moon is feminine.
969. The personal gender of these nouns being a literary usage, it is natural that writers should sometimes mix the personal and the neuter gender. Compare 963.
In the third place, it is obvious that no very close or instructive analogy can be established between Rome in her relations with the provincials and Great Britain in its relations with the self-governing colonies. Gromer, Imperialism p. 17.
Every moment now the attraction between the fiery star and the greatest of the planets grew stronger. And the result of



Nouns
that attraction? Inevitably Jupiter would be deflected from its orbit into an elliptical path, and the burning star, swung by his attraction wido of its sunward rush, would "describe a curved path," and perhaps collide with, and certainly pass very close to, our earth. Wells, Country of the Blind p. 315 f.
80



PROHOUHS
970. The distinction of pronouns as a special class of words is often based, in modern scientific grammars, on their inflections, which differed from those of nouns in the older penods <rf Indogermanic languages. But the distinction was onginally made rather on account of the functions and meanïngs of the words, and there are many facts in the present language that induce us to retain the traditional arrangement.
971. As to inflections, most of them are now lost, so that it is impossible to speak of a pronominal system of inflections. The chiaf remains of the old inflections are the neuter ending -t (m ü, what, compared with he and who), and the oblique (onginally dative) ending rm in him and whom. Unlike the nouns, some personal and interrogative (relative) pronouns have different forms for the subject and for the object,
972. The pronouns that are used as nouns differ from nouns in more important respects, however. They never have the nominal plural ending (except others). Indeed, they often have one form only for the singular and the plural function (you, who, some, any). ïï there are two forms to express number, one is often not really the plural of the other: thus they is not the plural of he or she or it; still less is we the plural of /. When an attributive adjective qualifies a noun-pronoun it must follow the pronoun (He looked like one dead; somethmg important), whereas it precedes nouns. See Wordorder.
«973- pronouns used as adjectives frequently have no propword one. And their conversion to nouns is not so restricted Kruisinoa, Handbook n. Aceidenee and Syntax. 2. 6



82
Pronouns
as that of ordinary adjectives: some, e. g., can be used substantively without the article, and in a general sense.
974. It may be said that pronouns have a very general meaning. But some nouns and adjectives have an equally general meaning, so that it would be impossible to distinguish pronouns from other words on the ground of their meaning only. Thus men or people are frequently used in the same way as the indefinite they j also thing, matter, less often part, affair, particular may be quite vague in meaning.
Things had changed greatly in the course of a year.
Freeman, Norman, Conquest, 114. Til buy a cloak for her the first thing to-morrow morning.
Anstey, Tinted Venus. Just now it is the summer of things; there is life and everywhere. Fairless, Roadmender I.
This seems to be carrying matters too far.
Blackstone, Commentaries. He had had, as he phrased it, a matter of four wives.
Samuel Johnson. Lackland boarded once, for the matter of a fortnight, in St. Edmundsbury Convent, Carlyle, Past and Present.
Bui ford has been rediscovered. And the pleasant part about it is that.... it thoroughly deserves rediscovery.
Times, Lit. Suppl. 3/2, 1921 '). Their material world was a perfectly clear-cut and comprehensible affair, and everytbing that was not material was merely moral. Times Lit. 26/7, 23.
A bottle of a particular 2) old wine.
Stevenson, Dr. Jekyll ed. Schutt p. 50.
975. With regard to their function, it may be said that pronouns are merely form-words; they do not denote persons
1) Compare also 936.
2) i. e. certain.



Simple Personal Pronouns
83
or things or qualities but point to them. Sometimes adverbs are closely related to them in function, often also in form. These pronominal adverbs (then, when, etc.), like the nouns and conjunctions that may be considered as pronoun-equivalents, are best treated in connection with the pronouns concerned. '
976. The traditional classification of pronouns is open to criticism. It is not consistent: thus the indefinite one is also a personal pronoun, like the interrogative who. The personal pronoun he has demonstrative functions, and the demonstrative pronouns are used anaphorically like the personal pronouns of the third person. The indefinite pronouns mclude words of various kinds: some is generally quantitative like several; it is even called definite in comparison with any especially in interrogative and conditional sentences; no h negative. Attempts have sometimes been made to improve the classification of pronouns, but the only result has been at best to show the grammarian's ingenuity. The indefinite pronouns have especially been the subjects of such experiments. And it is perfectly true that no defmition can be given that applies to all of themi). But there is no reason why we should attempt such a definition; it is enough to have a name to refer to a number of pronouns. The chapter on indefinite pronouns may be considered as the lumber-room of the pronouns; and a lumber-room may be as convenient in grammar as it is in a house.
Among the nouns with a very general meaning referred to in 974 the word thing shows so many points of resemblance to pronouns m its functions that it is convenient to treat it as an indefinite pronoun.
lt WOüld be possible to include more words in this chapter,
1) The student of Indogermanic languages is aware that several of them were onginally inflected like adjectives or nouns. And a pronoun like one is even now clearly identical with the numeral.



84
Pronouns
e. g. the numerals, but it does not seem necessary in a book of this sort.
Simple Personal Pronouns
Forms ^e 8imP^e personal pronouns have the
following forms, the special stressed forms being placed in brackets, and the spellings being denoted in italics. Singular Plural Nominative Obliqne Nominative Oblique lst Person ai I mi (mi) me wï, (wi) we es, s (as) us 2nd Person jü, (ju) you
3rd Person
Masc. hï, (hi) he him him ) Som | ^,
Pem. sï, (si) she hoor her > oei they (Sem) J Neuter ït (it) it ït (it) it 1 em 'em
In the unstressed forms initial [h] is apt to be lost. The pronoun / is the only one that has no form with an unstressed (weak) vowel.
In literary English the neuter form of the third person is sometimes 't before is, was, or were. See 27.
978. The pronouns we and us are conveniently considered as plurals of I and me. It is hardly necessary to point out that the word plural has not the same meaning here as in the case of nouns: We means I and one or more others, so that it refers both to the first and second persons, first and third, or all three. Similarly for they and them.
The plural we (and us) is also used in royal proclamations, etc, where it is looked upon as a pluralis majestatis. It is also usual in newspaper articles (the editorial we); in collo-



Simple Personal Pronouns
85
quial English it is also frequent as a plural of modesty: Let's try may very well mean Let me try. One also frequently hears Let's have a hok, and similar expressions. See 1071, and the last quotation of 960.
979. The nominative is used as the suhjeet or as the nominal predicate.
I have done my duty.
Ah! who was I that I should quarrel with the town for being changed to me, when I myself had come back, so changed to it. Forster-Gissing.
Have you seen her on these occasions and assured yourself that it is she? Baring-Gould in Swaen I p. 3.
Ah, is that he, really? H. James, Lesson of the Master.
On the use of these forms as the subject of absolute participle-constructions, see 559, 580.
980. The nominative is also used with a preceding not to express an emphatic, often indignant, repudiation of a suggestion.
But she would not do either—not she!
Gaskell, North and South ch. 16, p. 136. "Do you think it will last long?" "Not it!" said Mr. Gritchlow positively.
Bennett, Old Wives' Tale H ch. 5.
981. The oblique forms are used in all other cases, also in the 'ethical dative'; see 1879.
I saw him come.
We told him the story.
"If you can't find anything better to do," said she, "butter me the inside of this dish."
Bennett, Old Wives' Tale I ch. 3, § 1, p. 49. Think of me.



86
Pronouns
982. The oblique form can be used for the indirect object, but it must precede the direct object. When this order does not show the function a prepositional adjunct is necessary, just as in the case of nouns (875).
To him she spoke not a word of the inferior classes.
Meredith, Harrington ch. 12, p. 173.
983. In answering a question, e. g. Who is there? we usually say It is me. The oblique form me is also the only natural one as a predicate ih other cases.
Was I indeed Elvesham, and he me?
Wells, Country p. 155.
There is little doubt that it is I will one day be as impossible in English as c'est je, for ëest moi, is now in French'). Sapir, Language p. 179.
984. The use of the oblique forms as subjects or predicates, is often considered ungrammatical, although it occurs very generally in colloquial English, when the pronouns are used absolutely, i. e. independently (see footnote to 1091). For the last quotation, see 990 f.
A maiden beside me uttered an ecstatic though subdued cry of 'That's him!' when Willelmus Enrices Jones appeared in all the white glory of his hood.
AlasI that classic walls and cultured ears should hear such grammar! Barbara, p. 70.
If I was him, God forgive me...
Malet, Calmady IH ch. 2. They did not foresee the miraculous generation which is us.
Bennett, Old Wives' Tale J ch. 1, § 2.
1) The cases are not identical at present. For French je is always weakstressed, and exclusively used as a pre-verbal form (a proclitic partiele), whereas English J is freely used in any position, and has not even a genuinely weak-stressed form.



Simple Peesonal Pbohouns
87
Princess: "She suggested... that she should be me, and I should be her."
Duke: "That's not grammar, Sophia."
Princess: "Oh, bother grammar, Papa. Dont you see? We dress up, I as Attalie (there, that's grammar) and Attalie as me."
Duke: "That isn't" Hope in Swaen I, p. 19.
985. On the difficulty of distinguishing between subject and prepositional adjunct, see 990 ff. On the use of the oblique forms as the subject of a gerund, see 435 ff".
986. The form [em] is used in very colloquial English. It is now taken for an abbreviation of [em] them; hence the spelling with an apostrophe: 'em *).
987. The oblique form me is also used absolutely in ezclamations (a) and when the pronoun is used as a noun (b):
a. He tapped the porch nervously with his cane, sniffed his heliotrope and said irrelevantly: "Ah me, what abeautiful night! What a beautiful night!" Allen, Mettle of the Pasture.
"Of course, we are all fools," said the man. "So are you" — "Me?" cried Mr. P. startled.
'Me! me pay!' I exclaimed, rendered ungrammatical by surprise.
b. It is too late for poor me to hope for a husband from one of them, said the lady pouting and laughing.
Meredith, Feverel ch. p. 87. I shall be worse than a widow — an Indian girl widow' Suttee8); what will be left of me but ashes?... Some poor dregs of Joan carrying on a bankrupt life... No me...
Wells, Joan and Peter ch. 13, § 13. Compare also the following.
1) It is the descendant of O.E. him.
8) Hindu widow who immolates herself on her husband's funeral pyre.



88
Pronouns
"He has not come." Oh to be caring for a he.
Meredith, Amazing Marriage ch. 7, p. 75.
988. When a verb or a preposition governs two pronouns united by and, or, the second is sometimes found in the nominative instead of the oblique form when the first is you. The cause, no doubt, is the circumstance that you has no special forms for the subject and the object (a). In combinations of pronouns with nouns it is uncommon (b). This use of the nominative is generally considered incorrect, and therefore less usual in written English.
a. And now, my dear, let you and I say a few words about this unfortunate affair. Trollope, Framley ch, 41.
It is kept locked up in a marble casket, quite out of reach of you and I.
Many a well-born and well-brought-up golden lad and lass, together with chimmey sweepers, say, 'That's for you and I."
b. No wordly considerations, no fear of criticism or of consequences, neither prudence nor cowardice should stand between they two and fulfilment. Kenealy, Mrs. Grundy.
989. After some words, as, but, except, than, both the nominative and the oblique forms are found as the subject. As it is the case-forms of the pronouns that enable us to distinguish prepositions from conjunctions (1477 ff.), these words may be looked upon as either.
Forms after but, 990. With but, as, and than the nominas, than ative is considered the correct form.
Who could have done it but he?
None but they have a right to rule in the Ghurch.
I am one among a thousand; all of them wrong but I.
Newman, Disc. and Arguments. What was the right of so miserable a creature as she to excite disturbance? Meredith, Egoist



Simple Peesonal Pronouns
89
God keep you out of the clutches of such a man as he.
Conan Doyle, Sherlock Holmes. I have known much more highly-instructed persons than he make inferences quite as wild.
George Eliot, Mill on the Floss.
991. In colloquia! English the oblique forms are also found. Nobody knew what ailed her but me.
C. Brontë quoted in Gaskell, Life ch. 8 p. 114. "How pretty she looked. So do you. Everybody but me who am wretched." Thackeray, Vanity Fair.
You ate about five times as much as me anyhow.
Bennett, Old Wives' Tale III ch. 2 § 1. Really in one way poor Clarie is in a better position than me.
Sinister Street p. 757. The house of Latcham was on its last legs, notwithstanding all the state and splendour. There was no one who could save it but him. Garvice, Lorrie p. 112.
They were both somewhat taller than her.
Trollope, Three Clerks. "That is a point of which you should know more than me," she remarked drily. Bennett, The Grand Babyion Hotel.
992. After than the oblique form of the relative whom is invariably used. See Relative Pronouns.
Here is Mr. Ratler, than whom no authority on such a subject can be better. Trollope, Prime Minister.
Forms alter 993. • After except the oblique forms are the
except ruje>
Perhaps any woman would, except me. Hardy, Tess. Nobody exactly understands him except me. Mrs. Browning. No one ever knew of this night's episode, except us three.
Muloch, John Halifax. 994. But the nominative iB also found. And everybody is to know him except I?
Meredith, Gomedians.



90
Pronouns
995. It is not necessary to discuss the meaning of the personal pronouns of the first and second persons. It has already been pointed out that what are called the plurals of the first person (we, us) are not really forms of the first person. They mean I (me) and one or more others, and^ are accordingly at the same time pronouns of the first and second persons (I and you), of the first and third persons (I and he, or she, or it, or they), or of all three. See 978.
Pronouns of th& third person
996. The pronouns of the third person, like the demonstrative pronouns, have two functions:
1. they point out (deietie pronouns). Who will go? — He and L
2. they are used to refer to something, either to refer back (anaphoric) or to point forward (provisional):
a. My brother is out. I think he is gone to Jack HUI.
b. He is very clever, our Jack. He is very clever, is Jack.
It is difficult to solve the problem.
The pronoun it is only used in the second function, but it is sometimes purely formal, so that it can hardly be said, in, that case, to be a referring pronoun; see 1002, and 1018 f. Compare also 1028 ff., 1053 and the sections on Demonstrative Pronouns.
997. The pronouns in a deictic function are generally strong-stressed. The referring pronouns are generally weakstressed, but the anaphoric pronouns are sometimes used with strong stress, as in the following examples.
To this cause he lent all his faculties. For it he concocted verses, for it he made speeches, for it he scintillated the brightest sparks of his quiet wit.
Trollope, Barchester Towers. •



Personal Pronouns of the third person
91
The author served afloat throughout the war, being engaged chiefly on the blockade of the mouth of the Mississipi; but he makes no attempt to supply a consecutive accovnt of the operatiöns. Of them he has already written elsewhere.
Athenaeum 8/2, 1908.
When we fall asleep, we do not lay aside the thoughts ol the day, as the hand its physical work; nor upon awakening return to the activity of these as it to the renewal of its toil, finding them undisturbed. Allen, Mettle of the Pasture.
The are not to be had by a bit of worm on the end of a hook ... not they »). Jerome.
Anaphoric 998. The pronouns he, she, it are used to refer Pronouns to nouns. This use has been treated in the sections on the Gender of Nouns. Ee is also used as a correlative of somebody, anybody, someone, etc., rarely of one in the meaning of any one; see Indefinite Pronouns.
No one, therefore, can really study any particular period of history unless he knows a great deal about what preceded it and what came after it.
Gardiner and Mullinger, Introd. p. XXII.
999. It is further used to refer to the thought of a preceding sentence no matter how it is expressed.
They are trying to find a suitable house. — They will find it difficuH.
1000. When the subject precedes in the form of a clause there is generally no anaphoric pronoun (et). But sometimes anaphoric it is used, especially when the clause is so long that it is desirable to resumé the thread of the construction (b).
a. That he was right wants no proof. That he had closely studied the 'Divina Commedia' is evident, Edinb. Rev.
1) On this type of sentence, compare Sentence-Struclure (Appended Sentences).



92
Pbonouns
Where Mr. Swinburne's book is invaluable is in his interpretation of poetry as poetry, of symbolism as poetry, of pictorial design as poetry. Athenaeum. ,
b. That Keats often abused both these classes of adjective, that both abound in poetry of the second rank, and that both are snares to eloquent young poets, it is beyond question.
Rannie, Essays HL
1001. With some verbs it is used as an object without referring to anything in particular, although it cannot be said to be entirely void of meaning. Thus, in to fight it out the pronoun refers, though vaguely, to some thought like question, problem, diffieulty. When a servant declares that she is going to chuek it, the pronoun may be thought of as referring to her work, or duties, though neither of these words has been mentioned, and neither is really in her mind. The function of it is similar in the following examples.
Mr. Romfrey wished to have it out with bis nephew.
Meredith, Beauchamp ch. 36 p. 334. We should prefer to put it that it is possible to do both.
Times W. 16/8, '18. Do wn the long wide vista of the Gromwell Road, Kensington, the fog had it all its own way. Corelli, Gameos p. 6. Let him have it hot. Punch, 27/7, 21.
1002. Sometimes it has practically no meaning so that it may be called a formol object, although it is, usually possible to find a vague reference. ThuB in to rough it we may say that it vaguely refers to the idea life. It is common with converted nouns (1768).
She had been a toast, and queened it accordingly.
Cannan, Corner p. 3. "That's going it." — "I mean to go it."
Vachell, Quinneys' p. 15. The typist loses the strained hard expression she wears as a rule, and her eyes become soft and limpid, her lips



Personal Pronouns op the third person
93
tremulous and womanly. She dons her freshest blouse and shadiest bat, and with her girl friend tubes it to Hampstead or trams it to Kew, there to forget for a while the carkiDg cares of business. Everyman, 28/2, '13.
Swanning it. Meredith, Ormont, p. 12.
To hotel it, and inn it, and pub. it.
Jerome, Three Men p. 24.
"By Jove! this comes it strong. Fancy the snipocracy ») here — ehr Meredith, Harrington ch. 14, p. 153.
1003. Whereas it in to fighi it out, etc. is good English, the formal it in the preceding examples ib very colloquia!, or vulgar, often jocular.
"We are going it," she remarked appreciatively. "Don't be vulgar!" ordered Miss Ladbrook.
Pett Ridge, Garland, ch. 3 p. 65.
1004. The more or less formal it (1001 f.) is also found in prepositional adjunctB.
We are in for it. There is nothing for it but to submit. He was hard put to it for an answer. To have a good time of it. To make a clean breast of it. —
The fat and the lean of it, old Jdlyon called these brothers.
Galsworthy, Property ch. 1.
Provisional 1005. The provisional he, she, they, like the nouns anaphoric pronouns, refer to nouns; they are used in appended sentences, as in the last quotation of 996. But the provisional it has a wider use.
1006. The provisional it is used when the subject follows in the form of a verbal noun (infinitive or gerund) or a clause. On the character of this conatruction see the chapter on Sentence-Structure.
1) From snip = tailor.



94
Pronouns
It would be difficult to better this description. It only remains to make the necessary acknowledgements most rightly customary in all anthologies.
Praise of Oxford II, Preface. It's nonsense thinking her so ill as that.
Gaskell, Wives I 289. * The dazzling consideration was whether it would make the least difference being distantly connected with them by marriage.
Cotes, Cinderella p. 251. It is clear that you did not want to do the work. To this of course it is replied that the provision of further postal facilities.... need not cost much. Pilot.
It lived also in the child's memory that they had come. away from Portsea in the snow. Forster-Gissing.
1007. When the subject is a noun (or pronoun) the introductory there is used. See also 265 f.
There is nothing to be done now.
And still there had been hardly a word spoken between hi m and Lily. Trollope, Last Chronicle ch. 45.
1008. Sometimes a clause or noun may logieally be considered as a subject, but also as the object of an infinitive in the sentence.
How successful she has been, would require an elaborate essay to explain.
The enthusiasm that was caused by her song and behaviour would be vain to describe. Snaith, Principal Girl.
Here the words in italics are grammatieally the subjects of the two sentences. But logieally they might also be considered as the objects to the verbs to explain, to describe; they would become objects grammatieally if we inserted it (How successful she has been it would require an elaborate essay to explain).
Compare also the following quotations (all without it).
Whether the change ministers to the comfort of those whom it most influences is hard to say.



Personal Pronouns of the third person
95
What the little party at the vicarage would have been like if John's presence had not animated it, would be hard to ^ ')• Crawford, Tale ch. 18.
From the first he designated Lanfranc for the highest ecclesiastical office which was his to bestow.
Wakeman, Introduction p. 85.
Perhaps this last defect is that which is most difficult of all to determine. Athenaeum, 28/12, '12.
(This) would involve a discrimination of the factors of production which is not easy to make in all instances.
Montgomery, Problems I p. 29.
1009. The construction with it, however, seems to be the more usual one.
A more heinous offence against the State, short of actual treason, it is hard to imagine. Times "W. 9/3, '17.
A more complete antagonism between Ghurch and State it is not possible to imagine.
How often we made the circuit of the belt it is impossible t0 "I- Poe, Taks.
How far it was possible or desirable to refer to other books, instead of loading a history of literature with summaries of politica! events, it is not easy to decide. Athenaeum 29/2,1908.
That the British subject named by us in our review of April 18th was a thorn in the side of Marquis Ito, it is hardly necessary to prove. ib. 23/3, 1908.
1010. The twofold analysis is not always possible. In relative clauses, and in some other cases, front-position of the object makes the use of it obligatory.
I may be able to illustrate one point of view, which, as I believe, it is desirable that literary histories should take into account more distinctly than they have generally done.
1) Note that the provisional it would be inconvenient heie as it would follow after the anaphoric it.



96
Pronouns
Here, clearly, we have a psychological situation which it would be fascinating to analyse. Times Lit. 12/10. '16. Mrs. Walsingham had said what it was necessary to say.,,
Mrs. Sidgwick, Severins, ch. 20. This spell it was Glive's business to break.
1011. When a verb is construed with an object in the form of a verbal noun (infinitive or gerund) or a clause, and a predicative adjunct, we use the provisional it.
I think it of importance to inform you of my plans. The fog made it difficult to calculate the distance. They believe it their duty to look after the morals of those who live on their property. Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 6 p. 64. You must find it rather dull living here all by yourself
Sweet, Element, p. 80. He thought it well that Mr. Jenkins should get out of the way of dropping in whenever he heard the piano.
Sidgwick, Severins. This is a mistake which I deem it necessary to point out. This book contains much important matter which makes it the duty of all Homeric students to read it.
Times Lit. 27/1, '16. It would be premature to take it for granted that these different types could not be combined in a higher unity.
ib. 25/12, '19.
On the other hand, more than twenty headmasters gave it as their opinion that no great change would result. Edinb. Rev.
We mention them because from their nature they make it clear that this is not the kind of work which a pessimist would expect to emerge from a competitive trial. Athenaeum.
1012. The provisional it is also used in this construction when the object has the form of an i/-clause.
Do you think the girls would consider it narrow if I asked them to stop that dancing and whooping?
Sidgwick, Severins ch. 3 p. 31.
1) It seems that the gerund is little used as an object after verbs construed with an object and a predicative adjunct.



Personal Pronouns of the Third Person
97
1013. In some cases the verb and the predicative adjunct have become so closely connected that they are treated as compounds, not taking it. They do not take noun-objects, hdwever; only infinitives and clauses.
Yet no writer has of late thought fit to deal fully and exclusively with this subject. Times Lit. 20/1, '16.
To this end the Jesuit thought proper to remove him from the immediate attendance on the Queen.
Shorthouse, Inglesant ch. 5, p. 63. Until he sees fit to publish his results.
Wells, Country p. 445-. Mr. Gregory makes plain to us that from whatever point of view we regard science, she is beautiful and good...
Times Ed. S. 4/7, '16.
Compare the following quotation, where the adjunct {right) has retained its independent meaning:
He thought it right to call soon afterwards.
Gaskell, Wivès II p. 15.
1014. The provisional it is also found when the verb is construed with an object in the form of an infinitive or clause and a prepositional adjunct that cannot be interpreted as a predicative adjunct. In this case it must be used even when verb and adjunct are practically compounds (1013), as in the two last of the following quotations.
He began the modern theory of the practical value of art, but left it to others to work it out. Times Lit. 15/2, 18.
You cannot fail to make friends with many who will have it in their power to be of great use to you.
Shorthouse, Inglesant ch. 20 p. 206.
Mrs. Gibson took it into her head that she could reinstate herself. Gaskell,'Wives H, 263.
1Ö15. The provisional it is obligatory when verbs with Kruising*, Hand book H. Accidence and Synlax. 2. 7



98
Pronouns
a prepositional object are followed by an object in the form of a clause.
Sometimes he used to vex Roger by insisting upon it that Molly was prettier than Cynthia. Gaskell, Wives II, 147.
We must see to it that the eleventh million and the twelfth, and as many as have to be called for, are no laggard successors to those which have been already spent. Times W. 26/4, '18.
We may rely upon it that we shall not improve upon the classification adopted by the Greeks.
M. Arnold, Essays in Criticism II, 137.
1016. It may be pointed out that the construction with the provisional it sometimes suggests a special meaning of the verb. Thus to insist upon in the quotation in the prèceding sentence means to declare repeatedly; in its usual meaning (when it expresses will) to insist upon takes a gerund Compare also the two following sentences.
You may depend upon it that what I say is true. That was the worst of Graham in England; you never could depend upon bis taking things as he was meant to take them.
Cotes, Cinderella, ch. 7, p> 79. In the first, to depend upon it means to be sure, in the second to depend upon is equivalent to rely upon, eount upon. In this last meaning the prepositional accusative with infinitive is also used 2). See 379 f.
She can depend on you to hold your tongue.
Shaw, Arms and the Man, Act. II.
1017. In the following cases it seems difficult to decide whether it is the anaphoric (formal) object (1002), or the provisional it.
1) It is also possible to use to insist (without a preposition) and a subordinate clause: I insisted that he should accompany us.
2) This construction would not be possible in the case of the last instance of 1015.



Personal Pronouns op the Third Person
99
It is to Italy that we owe it that Europe is not still the home of wandeling barbarous and predatory tribes.
Times Lit. 15/6, 16.
We cannot help it if our father thinks it too dangerous, can we?
He will have it that Hamlet suffers from mental disorder.
Times Lit. 18/5, 22.
Formal It 1018. Any part of a sentence may, for the sake of emphasis, be placed at the head of the sentence with the introductory ït ia, was, etei ThiB is a different case from the provisional it; see the chapter on SentenceStructwre (Apparent Compound Sentences).
It is completely formal in impersonal verbs: It rains.
It was Trenor himself who frightened her.
Wharton, House of Mirth.
It is your father that I want.
It is your careless writing that I object to.
It is only yesterday that I told you.
It is only at its south-eastern end that this country approaches the main-land.
If ever two men presented a contrast it is you and he.
It is the Americans who gained the victory.
"Are you quite mad, Selma?" he asked.
"Mad? No. It is they who are mad to let you go..."
Mrs. Sidgwick, Severins ch. 27.
It is to Ancient Germany that we must look for the earliest traces of our forefathers, for the best part of almost all of us is originally German. Stubbs, Lect. Early Engl. Hist. p. 3.
As each town has its characteristic features and peculiar advantages, we may ask what it is that constitutes the special attraction exerted by the City of York. York p. 5.
1019. The use of provisional and formal it in constructions with the non-finite verb has been illustrated in the first chapter; see 384(2), 446f., 534, 536, 563.



100
Pronouns
Special Functions Reflexive Use 1020. The simple forms of the personal pronouns are also used reflexively in prepositional adjuncts of place.
We have an hour's work before us. He put the thought from him.
The man seized Webb without saying a word, and pulled him after him through the woods. Sweet, Spoken English p. 63.
When the Angles and Saxons first came to Britain, they brought with them no written literature at all.
Delmer, Engl. Lit. p. 4.
The Committee was a singularly strong body, and it devoted to the task before it great care and enormous industry.
Oxf. and Camb. Rev. no. 9.
Having done this, she stood in the middle of the floor, looking about her irresolute. Allen, Bride of the Mistletoe.
He would never have thought of marrying beneath him socially.
1021. In these adjuncts it is the preposition that receives the strongest stress, whereas in other prepositional adjuncts (a) the strongest stress falls on the pronoun (1058). But we sometimes find the simple pronoun even when the preposition is weak-stressed (o).
a. Think it out for yourself.
He will have to rely upon himself.
b. You see, it was much of the same bigness; and it had the same quick light way with itx).
Stevenson, Dr. Jekyll ed. Schutt p. 76. She wanted to keep me with her that I might not disturb the conversation. Mary Lamb, Select Short Stories II p. 3.
He and she as 1022. The pronouns he and, less often, Antecedent Pronouns she are used as antecedent pronouns, i. e.
1) Note that with does not express place.



Special Functions op the Personal Pronouns
101
as pronouns serving for the antecedent to a relative clause, and referring to people in general*).
It has often been said that he who begins life by stifling his convictions is in a fair way for ending it without any convictions to stille. Morley, Compromise.
He is but a mean American who believes tbat this will last.
Price Collier, England ch. 2 p. 45.
When he that is humblest among us goes out in the early morning to his work in the fields, or she that is least accounted of takes up her needie and sits down to her fourteen hours of sewing, they . have that for which the richest blind man alive would, I imagine, give all that he has.
John Galsworthy, Times.
there is nothing upon earth
More miserable than she that has a son
And sees him err. Tennyson, Princess III, 242 ff.
1023. The use of the antecedent pronouns he and she is chiefly literary; he (she) that is never used in spoken English apart from proverbs (He that fights and runs away, May live to fight another day). The usual construction in spoken English is a man who, a woman who, or those who; on those and that as antecedent pronouns, see Demonstrative Pronouns, also 1025 on they as an antecedent pronoun in literary English.'
1024. When he and she are followed by a relative clause they are not necessarily antecedent pronouns. They may also have the usual (referring) function of personal pronouns.
He who gave three hundred and fifty pages to the Roman Republic and the Defence of Rome, a story of a few months now gives only four hundred to the story of England during a whole century. Times Lit. 25/5, 22.
She was conscious of an expectation that punishment would
1) They are also called determinative pronouns. The function is essentially deictic; see also 1086.



102
Pkonoüns
instantly fall on this daring impious child. But she, who never feit these mad, amazing impulses, could nevertheless only smile fearfully.
Bennett, Old Wives' Tale I ch. 1 § 2 p. 27.
1025. In older and in literary English they (and them) are sometimes used as antecedent pronouns (a). They are not necessarily antecedent pronouns when a relative clause follows (6). Compare 1189.
a. The good old rule, the simple plan, That they should take who have the power, And they should take who can.
How are we to know when we are at the head and fountain of the fates of them we love? Meredith, R. Feverel.
And yet, to them that wish for wider knowledge, Our London teaches more than any College.
G. Frankau, One of Us, XH, 1.
b. Their omnipotent, all-wise mother was not present to teil them what to do. They who had never decided, had to decide now. Bennett, Old W. Tale I ch. 1 § 3.
Demonstrative Use 1026. In literary English the personal pronouns of the third person are used in a demonstrative function when followed by a prepositional adjunct, or a clause. Compare the stressed forms in 997, and the footnote to 1022. Robert Burton, he of 'The Anatomy of Melancholy,' wrote in Vaughan's time a 'History of the Principality of Wales.'
Quart. Rev. April 1914. As it is with us breathing mortals who appear variously to diverse minds, so it was with the white lady, she ot porcelain, who stood over her white reflection on the polished surface of John Brough's table. Niven, Porcelain Lady.
In the late squire's time — he who had been plucked at college — the library windows had been boarded up to avoid paying the window-tax. Gaskell, Wives I ch. 6.
"Where is Thomas?" said she of the Argus eyes.
Trollope, Framley ch. 7.



Personal Pronouns and Adverbs
103
You, we, they 1027. The pronoun you, less often we, used indeflnitely they (and the possessives your, our, their), are sometimes used in general statements made with special reference to one or more persons.
He knew nothing of the machinery of the world. He was poor, and he had accepted it was axiomatic that poor people had to do work that was distasteful to them. He had no notion of what that work resulted in, or who profited by it. You went on working until you had enough to marry, and then you married and went on working until you died.
Gilbert Gannan, Corner, ch. 10.
"I suppose there is a good deal of skating goes on about here?" — «Yes, they skate on the meadows; there are generally floods after Christmas.', Sweet, Spoken English p. 92.
Personal Pronouns and Adverbs
1028. Most classes of pronouns have adverbs related in form or meaning, or both, which have similar functions. Thus there is a great eimilarity between the anaphoric personal (and demonstrative) pronouns and the adverb so1).
So 1029. So is used to refer to a preceding sentence after a number of verbs, especially- such as convey a matter of uncertainty, such as to say, to teil, to think, to hope, to suppose, to fear, to be afraid, to order, to believe, to see, to expect 2).
He will come in time, at least I hope so. Did he know you were going away? — Yes, I told him so. We were to drink tea at five; so mamma had ordered. 'But is such a thing possible?" — "I believe so."
Wells, Country of the Blind, p. 446.
1) Anaphoric so much and as much is illustrated, together with that much, in the sections on the Demonstrative». .2) In this case expect is equivalent to suppose.



104
Pronouns
"But what is the essential Balliol?" Michael demanded. "Who could say so easily?" Sinister Street p, 583.
"I'm putting Master Bob to bed, sir," she said, with a clutch at her cap. -- «So I see," said Michael, and asked for some hot water. Sidgwick, Severins p. 17.
"There are plenty of things you haven't looked at yet..." "Yes," she said. "I expect so." Bennett, Anna ch. 8.
1030. When these verbs are construed with an object and predicative adjunct, it is used as an object (a), and so as a predicative adjunct (b).
a. He has sold his house. — I think it a great pity. Parliamentary suffrage is not that goal of women's aims
which some have supposed it. Times Ed. S. 3/7, '19.
b. In Mr. Hardy's case however, the supernatural beings (if so we call them) have to support a definite philosophic doctrine. Edinb. Rev. April 1908.
As if the age were the injury! He seemed to think it so.
/ Meredith, Amazing Marriage ch. 1. But Goethe had a religion too, though he did not call it so.
Times Lit. 9/12, '20. She made life interesting just because she found it so.
Times Lit. 29/10, 14. Martin says that a thing is only impossible when we think so- Galsworthy, Fraternity ch. 3 p. 35.
1031. So may also refer to a preceding sentence in other cases, for example after if and why.
Has the reader forgotten Miss Ginevra Fanshawe? If so I must be allowed to re-introduce that young lady.
Brontë, Villette ch. 9.
"Mamma, I do not like Jane —" that was our new houseparlourmaid.
"Why so?" I asked. Baring-Gould in Swaen I p. 1.
1032. So may stand for a preceding nominal predicate,



Personal Pronouns and Adverbs
105
üsoally an adjective or a noun (o) or a predicative adjunct to the object (6).
a. He had been weak but he would be so no longer.
Montgomery, Misunderstood, ch. 13. England was a Ghristian country and likely to remain so.
Wakeman, p. 29. But we also 'speak of the king as sovereign because he once was so in reality. Gill, Government p. 1H.
Nothing could be meaner than the subject, the progress of a parish or workhouse boy, nothing less.so than its treatment.
Forster-Gissing» She had never argued the matter within herself, or considered whether this common tone was or was not faulty; but she was sick of it without knowing that she was so.
Trollope, Barchester. The garden is all round the house, but the principal part is on the south side, and has evidently always been so. "She is so sby." "Oh yes, she used to look it."
"No, that's her peculiarity, that she never looks it, and yet she is intensely so." Henry James, Reverberator.
This was not done everywhere, but it was so to a large extent in the south. Baring-Gould, Old Country Life ch. 1.
b. (I) was once a Catholic — at least my guardians tried v t0 make me so. Thomas, Lafcadio Hearn p. 14.
1033. When so refers to a predicative noun it is because a predicative noun often has the function of an adjective rather than of a noun; see the sections on the absence of the article before predicative nouns. When the predicative noun has a distinctly nominal function so is not used.
Poland had been an important national state once;, yet nobody foresaw that it would be one after the war was over.
1034. With the verb to do we also find so to refer to a preceding verb with its adjuncts.



106
Pronouns
She could not have said why she told him this; an instant before she spoke, she had no intention of doing so.
Gaskell, Wives I ch. 10. ^
(His eyes) were also very much lighter, and of so light and clear a blue as to make his face remarkable, if nothing else did so. Trollope, Barchester ch. 9.
Mr. Povey, free to reconnoitre, did so.
Bennett, Old W. Tale I ch. 6 § 2.
It is evident, in short, that the Utopians set much store by Greek, but that they did so chiefly on account of the knowledge to which that language was the key.
Edinb. Rev. Oct. 1905.
Although here and there a few students would prefer to take up mathematics, natural science, or commercial subjects, the number who did so was comparatively small. ib.
In literary English so is sometimes used without the vejb to do, when there is another auxiliary.
But let the author explain himself (if so he can) in the words of his preface. Edinb. Rev. April 1908.
In spoken English we should say: if he aan do so, or if he can.
1035. Although the function of so is very similar to that of the pronouns there is this difference that so can have front-position where the personal pronoun cannot (a). It can also precede the verb; this place of so is rather literary than colloquia! (b).
a. Was he not going to preach on behalf the Papuan Mission next Sunday? Ah! so he, the Bishop, heard.
Trollope, Framley ch. 3.
b. But various excuses were made for him by those who so believed. Trollope, Last Chronicle of Barset ch. 47.
"Of course you know that Harold Smith is going to give a lecture about these islanders'?" ... Mark said that he had been so informed. ib.



Personal Pronouns and Adverbs
107
1036. So must be put at the head of the sentence, with a subject and the auxiliary of the preceding sentence, either to confirm a preceding statement (a), or to apply the predicate of the preceding sentence to a new subject (b). The front-position of so is the result of the necessity to give emphatic end-position to the auxiliary in the first case, and to the subject in the second. See also 1034, and 618 ff.
a. He says he can do it. — So he can. He told me he went home. — So he did.
"TUI lately you were always a good churchman!" "So I am, my dear," he answered, "but not bigoted."
Piekt hall, Larkmeadow, ch. 16, p. 105. All this sounds very bewildering, and so it is.
Times Lit. 26/10, 17. , "You forget, Miss Walker, that Mrs. Proudie is in authority over me." — "So she is, for the matter of that," said the young lady. Trollope, Last Chron. ch. 20.
b, My companions were dejected and so was I.
Rut herford, Autobiography p. 114. The Lombards were aliens; but so were the Greeks.
Davis, Med. Europe p. 38. He has done his best. — So have I. I did my best. — So did he.
The trade of I.ondon steadily increased and so did its population. Inns of Court and of Chancery, p. 6.
Blandley thereupon returned to his toil; so did JohnBrough t° his. Niven, Porcelain Lady ch. 4.
1037. No auxiliary is used when the preceding statement contains the verb to have.
"She had a large heart." — "So she had," said Scrooge. Erasmus had reason on his side; but so, too, had Aquinas.
Davis, Med. Europe p. 7.
1038. In the case mentioned under 1036 b the contrast between the subjects is expressed by end-position of the second



108
Peonouns
subject. Sometimes too, also are added; this is necessary when there is no verb or auxiliary, as in the last sentence. I was grieved for many reasons, and so was mother also.
Blackmore, Lorna Doone ch. 46. The sections concerning traditional games, dances, plays and pageants, and local customs are excellent, and so, too, are those relating to persons. Athenaeum, 27/7, 12.
Mystery is attractive, but so also is transparency.
Mr. Henry de la Pasture, Gornhill Magaz., Sept. 1912.
Dryden caught a little of their fine tact and consum-
mate workmanship without lessening his own originality; so also did Pope. Dennis, Age of Pope, p. 4.
Shakespeare uses compounds freely, so also Shelley, Keats, etc.
1039. It seems that so in this function sometimes suggests the meaning also, so that it is used twice, the first time in the meaning also, the second to refer back.
"Ginevra saw you, I think?" — "So do I think so'). Ihave had my eye on her several times." Brontë, Villette, ch. 20.
"I do hope you will go home soon," he added. "Yes," said Richard, "and I, so do I hope so."
Meredith, Feverel, ch. 26.
1040. When the sentences are negativo, we use no more, nor, neither. These words seem to be more clearly conjunctive than so. After nor and neither the auxiliary always seems to precede the subject, so that the difference between the two constructions mentioned in 1036 is not apparent in print, although the strong stress on the subject in the second case makes the difference quite clear in spoken English. In the case of (a) no more seems the usual word.
a. He says he cannot do it. — No more he can.
As to Bertie, one would have imagined from fhe sound of
1) It may be a Wending of so do I and I think so too. The same explanation would account for the second quotation.



Personal Pronouns and Adverbs
109
his voice and the gleam of his eye that he had not a sorrow or care in the world. Nor had he.
Trollope, Barchester ch. 19. Both.... Iooked as if they had no money care in the world. And neither had they.
, Belloe-Lowndes, Mary Pechell, ch. 1. b. He did not work well. — No more (Neither, Nor) did you. I could hardly believe it. - No more (Neither, Nor) could I,
1041. Very occasionally, so is used to refer forward. It is essentially the same, however, as the usual anaphoric so.
•So do L" said Michael. «Nothing would induce me to use it." — Michael did not say so to his sisters, but he knew by this time that he would have had an easier task if his mother had supported him consistently.
Sidgwick, Severins, ch. 7 p. 65.
No pronoun used i042. An idea may also become so vague m the mind of the speaker that no referring word is used at all. This is especially the case:
'X in the questions and answers discussed in 610 ff.
(610) . We are not a critical audience, are we, Mr. Walsingham? Sidgwick, The Severins.
(611) . «You — you're only doing that to frighten me," stammered Miss Spencer, in a low, quavering voice.
"Am I?" Nella replied, as firmly as she could.
Bennett, Grand Babyion Hotel. (622). «Have you seen him?" «I have."
2. when the auxiliary is repeated to emphasize one's conviction 0f the truth of a statement just made (614) or to deny it (620).
(614).^ He's nasty is Tom Tamlin. Vachell, Quinneys'. "Yes," said Uncle Charlie, enjoying the joke; it will be fine fun for you and Miles, wont it?" .



110
Pronouns
"Oh, won't it," echoed Humphrey, jumping down from his chair, and capering about.
Montgomery, Misunderstood ch. I. (620). He is always very kind. — I am sure he isn't.
3. with a number of verbs. Some of these never take so: to try, to care, to forget.
You have broken a plate; I'U teil your mother.
Does your father know your plan? — No, but 1*11 teil him.
Have you done it? Teil me.
You cannot do that. — Let me, try.
He is a very influential man. — I know, but I don't care.
It is perfectly true, I assure you.
Was it nine o'clock when he came? — I forget.
Did you ever leave him in the room alone? — I cannot say, Ma'am, perhaps I did.
"Of course everything is changed now." "Indeed?" murmured Mrs. Baines with polite curiosity. "Yes" said Miss Ghetwynd. 'You've not heard?*'
Bennett, Old Wives' Tale I ch. 3 § 5.
"George," she said in an awe-stricken whisper, "did you see?" Wells, Country of the Blind p. 19.
But it could not be omitted in the following passage, because the idea represented by it is quite definite.
The life of a quiet, steady-going undergraduate has been told in a score of novels better than I can teil it.
Butler, Way of all Flesh p. 199.
1043. The use of anaphoric so is found in all styles of written English, but in the case of 1034 it and that are more frequent in colloquial English. All the sentences in the preceding section illustrate colloquial English, as also the following, which are essentially the same as those of 1042, 1 and 2.
You think you are strong enough to lift him up and make a man of him. But you're not. Phillpotts, Beacon I ch. 9.



So, IT, AND THAT
111
Wild and inhospitable? Well, if any region on the earth's surface deserves the adjectives, that region does.
London Magazine July 1918 p. 369.
"Every person has a right to take care of tbemselves He always did". — «That's true indeed!" said the laundress. "No man more so." Dickens, Garol st. 4.
We're happy now that he has come — or, at any rate ought to be. Trollope, Three Clerks, ch. 5.
1044. On the other hand the presence of so seems to be contrary to the uses of spoken English in this sentence.
Don't call me censorious, Mark; you know I am not so.
Trollope, Framley ch. 1.
1045. The use of so seems to be exclusively literary with verbs expressing will. In spoken English the so-called promfinitive would be used i. e. the preposition to, or anaphoric it or that, or there would be no referring word at all; see 1042 f. Note that so precedes the verb.
If any one had asked him if he wanted to own her soul, the question would have seemed to him both ridiculous and sentimental. But he did so want, and the writing said he never would. Galsworthy, Man of Property ch. 5 p. 76.
So, it, and that
1046. In some of the cases discussed it is used as well as so. We only find it, however, when the idea referred to is less vague than in the case of so; thus it occurs:
1. with the verbs conveying an opinion (1029);
2. with the verb to do (1084);
3. with the verbs expressing will (1045).
1. My conscience showed me as clearly as possible that there was baseness in the whole manner of getting leave for this visit. It seemed to say, " When did Ned's parents ask you? If ever, certainly not just now. And yet, this is what you want your parents and your master to believe, though you don't exactly say it." Sweet, Spoken English.



112
Pkonouns
The use of it here is preferable because it refers more definitely to the very words of the preceding sentence; whereas so would refer to its meaning in a more indefinite way.
Compare also:
"Macchiavelli!" she simply exclaimed.
"You do me too much honour. I wish indeed I had his genius. However, if you really believed I bad his perversity you would not say it'). Henry James, Golden Bowl.
Lord Lufton should not marry among his dependants. Lady Lufton would not have used the word but she did think it.
Trollope, Framley, ch. 35 p. 340.
You're as green as the grass, but you do 'ave some of my brains. I ain't a-goin' to argue with you for one minute. Don't think itl Vachell, Quinneys', p. 161.
Right you are, James, even if I do say it. ib., p. 218.
Does technical knowledge exclude the "common sense" which is worth more? We should be sorry to think it, and we do not think it. Athenaeum, 29/7, 1905.
If this plot were altogether the Jesuits', John Inglesant would not say it. Shorthouse, John Inglesant.
The suspicion of his having come to impart the news ot his proximate marriage ultimately endowed her with sovereign calmness. She had need to think it, and she did.
Meredith, Diana.
2. Oh! by the way, here's a letter for Mr. Goxe. Don't send it through the women; take it round yourself to the surgery door, and do it at once. Gaskell, Wives I ch. 5.
When the popes sent legates, demanded taxes, controlled appointments, collected money in the thirteenth century, it was often difficult to say whether they did it by virtue of their ecclesiastical or their feudal position.
Wakeman, Introduction p. 126.
In these cases to do is a verb with full meaning rather
1) Here it refers to the word Macchiavelli, whereas so would refer to a whole sentenee, like: You are as perverse as Macchiavelli. See also the quotation following this one.



So, IT, AÏTD THAT
113
than a substifcute for a preceding verb. But this does not explain the use of it; we find so when to do is neöessarily a verb with full meaning, but in literary English.
Mrs. Harold Smith had only just managed to catch Miss Dunstable before she left London; but she did do so.
Trollope, Framley ch. 38 p. 363.
3. *Will you promise?" she cried «If you wish it"
he said, forced to yield. Bennett, Leonora, ch. 10. '
1047. It is not used in the cases of 1032. The reason is, evidently, to be looked for in the adjectival character of predicative adjuncts.
1048. That is used anaphorically i) in the same functions as so. That and it are more definite than so, but that has a stronger stress so that it is more emphatic; that is used in all the four cases where we may find so (1029 ff.), whereas it is not found in the case mentioned in 1032.
(1029). «He thinks that if you would give him time he could catch up again." «They all think that," said the Earl, looking rather black. Burnett, Little Lord ch. 6.
A.s a matter-of-fact, it does not do much more than keep the rain out, though, of course, I don't teil her exactly that.
Cotes, Cinderella, ch. 24 p. 258.
(1032). It makes me so angry when I hear her called cold and conceited! The girls at the club don't call her that.
Wharton, House of Mirth, p. 127.
The thing is to be free all round in this world, and only the poor can be that. Phillpotts, Forest ch. 3.
The world for him seems a stage and all its men and women mere players; and it is one of life's truest paradoxes that, directly they seem that, they cannot be made into a Play- Quarterly Rev. July 1913, p. 235.
1) It is not used as an anticipatory pronoun (see Demonstrative Pronouns), so that it could not be substituten for so in the sentence of 1041. Krdisinga, Handbook II. Acctdence and Syntax. 2. 8



Il4
PRONOUNS
I used just now, in speaking of Ulstermen, the word "nation." They are that in a more vivid sense than ever before, and this is the work of Sir Edward Garson. Times 5/6, 14.
(1034). "I shall look in at the Deanery on Saturday, unless you send me a postcard and teil me not to come." — "Why should I do that?" — "Oh, well, you might, you know. But if you don't do that, I shall come and look at the tennis."
But it is time for Edwin and Hilda to come up in the world. And that they do. Times Lit. 20; 1, 16.
"But you drew down the blinds," said the young man. "My brother did that. Never mind..." Sidgwick, Severins p. 24.
1049. We also find emphatic that in cases of repetition of the auxiliary; here neither it nor so could be used (1042).
"I am sorry you have been in trouble", she said, — "Oh, that we have, Miss, and it's on'y just beginning."
Mrs. Wharton, House of Mirth. Pm sorry as my wife 's away, that I am.
Bennett, Old Wives' Tale IV ch. 4 § 3. "And so I never went again; and I was.very glad of it, for it was a horrid place." — "That it was," said Molly.
Gaskell, Wives I ch. 19 p. 326.
Simple Personal Pronouns in Literary English Forms 1050. Literary English has the following additional forms:
Nominative Oblique 2nd p. Singular thou [oau] thee [tii]
2nd p. Plural ye [ji, jï]
Use 1051. These forms are almost exclusively used in poetry and religious prose (in imitation of the Bible). Both thee (often shortened to 'ee) and ye are also found öolloquially or facetiously; ye almoBt exclusively as a subject-form.
Lieutenant Bonaparte, Would it not seemlier be to shut the heart



Simple Personal Pronoüns in Literary English
115
To these unhealthy splendours? — render thee To whom thou swarest first, fair Liberty?
Hardy, Dynasts I, vi (p. 56). Red Wind from out the East : Red Wind of blight and blood! Ah, when wilt thou have ceased Thy bitter, stormy flood?
Lionel Johnson, The Red Wind (Van Doorn p. 137). But Byron, most to thee, than whom no rarer
Spirit is found upon Elysium's plainl To-day none know thy 'Childe' and none thy 'Lara',
Thy Hebrews are melodious in vainj For many mark the falling price of Para,
Yet none the fall of Parisina slain, Save only I, what hour, to midnight's chiming, I search thy cantos for forgotten rhyming.
Gilbert Frankau, One óf Us, Dedication st. 3.
Loud rang the curses from four Yankee lips. But did the stripling grouse? Judge ye who know
Our English bulldog in his dying grips.
ib. VIH, 20 (p. 69).
1052. In literary English the simple personal pronouns are archaically used in a reflexive sense. See 1068. And I must bow me to the critics' flans, To friends' derision and relations' banter.
G. Frankau, One of Us I, 4. We moored our craft, and sat us down to dine»).
ib. H, 13.
JNow to my long-neglected Gods of Gain, A beggared suppliant I hie me back. ib. Epilogue.
He sets him to the work. Hardy, Dynasts I, n, p. 22/ Over his cup of coffee, he bethought him that'he would go to the opera. Galsworthy, Man of Property I ch. 2.
1) This instance is more archaic than the others, for it is only in earlier English that to sit and other verbs of movement were-used reflexively.



116
Pbonouks
1053. In formal English the pronominal adverbB with here-, there- are sometimes used instead of a preposition followed by a neuter personal or demonstrative pronoun: herein, hereof, etc., therein, thereof, etc. Note the spellings, herefor, therefor (distinct from the adverb of reason therefore). See 1213.
Compound Personal Pronouns
Forms 1054. The compound personal pronouns have the following forms: Singular Plural
lst person mai'self myself auo'selvz ouraelvea
2nd „ juo'self yourself juo'selvz yourselves
Masc. him'aelf himself } 3rd „ Fem. hee'self heraelf C Somselvz themaclvea
Neuter ït'self itaelf ) Por the second person singular literary English also uses the form thy self [Sai'self]; and for the first person ouraelf.
Use 1055. The compound personal pronouns are used in three ways:.
1. as reflexive pronouns, emphatic and non-emphatic.
2. as emphatic non-reflexive personal pronouns.
3. as emphatic adjective-pronouns.
Reflexive 1056. The compound personal pronouns are üse used reflexively:
1. as a predicate.
On that occasion Flaubert was superbly himself.
Times Lit. 27/1, 16.
He even regrets sometimes that he had not been born a few centuries earlier, when England was itself, and had its peculiar manners and customs.
2. as a direct object.



Compound Personal Pronouns
117
She could not be much good to him even if she found him. It was her first duty to save herself.
Wells, Joan and Peter ch. 3 § 9 p. 69 f.
Having filled both ourselves and our water-bottles as full as possible, we started off again.
Rider Haggard, Solomon's Mines.
Michael, although Stella was more of a tie than a companion, was shocked to hear that she would not accompany Miss Carthew and himself to Eastbourne for the summer holidays. Sinister Street p. 159.
3. as an indirect object.
He very slowly proceeded to make himself his evening meal.
Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 13 p. 156.
They were settlers who built themselves huts and cleared a piece of land in the commons or woods, at some distance from the village. Hammond, Village Labourer. p. 7.
4. in prepositional adjuncts.
Mrs. Damer won for herself considerable reputation in the latter part of the eighteenth century as the first lady sculptor.
Gradually the villagers came to look on him as a being superior rather than inferior to themselves.
Athenaeum 14/3, 1908.
She bounded away to the garden to her aunt, of whom, perhaps, she was more truly fond than of anyone in the world except herself. Allen, Ghoir Invisible.
Never mind others; speak for yourself.
1057. The compound pronouns when used as a predicate or direct object are always emphatic. The indirect object is never emphatic; if emphasis must be expressed an adjunct with to or for is used. In prepositional adjuncts the pronouns may be either emphatic or not. The unemphalic compound pronouns are also used reflexively in the accusative-withinfinitive (372), and in the accusative-with-participle (e. e. 534). See 1059.



118
Pronouns
1058. In prepositional adjuncts of place the compound forms are used when they prevent ambiguity. See 1020 f. Sometimes the simple pronouns seem equally Buitahle.
Lord Charles Beresford complained that the First Lord took executive as well as administrative functions upon himself.
Times.
We think it probable that they will succeed in the special aim they have put before themselves, though only experience can prove the value of their book to the student for whom it is designed. Athenaeum.
Without any process of reasoning, he feit sorry for both of them *), and he was aware of a certain condescension in himself towards Ingpen. Bennett, These Twain IH ch. 20.
Plato gathered about himself in Athens a body of disciples.
Goodspeed p. 195.
1059. The reflexive pronouns refer to the logical subject of the verb or verbal, or of the predicative adjunct, not necessarily to the grammatical subject of the sentence.
The Government has allowed the disputants the fullest possible time to come to terms of themselves.
Daily News, 21/20, 12.
When youth desired to become personal, or middle age showed a tendency to grow silly, she chilled them alike, and had the art to leave them not angry with her, but with themselves. Phillpotts, Beacon I ch. 2.
That is a deep and wide saying, that no miracle can be wrought without faith — without the worker's faith in himself, as well as the recipient's faith in him *).
Eliot, Clerical Life.
1060. Occasionally the compound pronoun is used in a reciprocal sense, so that it is equivalent to each other. This depends upon the preposition.
1) Mr. Ingpen and a woman.
2) It has been explained (883) that the relation of a genitive and its headword is that of subject and prcdicate of a verbal sentence. .



Compound Personal Pronouns
119
There was a scanty congregation, consisting for the most part of peasant women who, during the religious ceremonies, whispered much among themselves....
Buchanan, That Winter Night.
I believe they will choose the latter course; that is to say they will continue to co-operate between themselves, instead of fighting between themselves. Everyman, 15/11, 12.
1061. The reflexive pronouns are also used as part of verbs that need a compound pronoun to complete their meaning (the reflexive verbs).
I can dress and wash myself in half an hour.
Those would have been the fitting words for the expression of her ladyship's ideas; but she remembered herself, and did not use them. Trollope, Framley ch. 15 p. 146.
I avaüed myself of this opportunity.
He betook himself to his bed without delay.
They kept themselves to themselves.
Bènnett, Old W. T. H ch. 3 § 2.
1062. In the reflexive verbs the pronoun is never emphatic. Some verbs are always reflexive, others can also be used intransitively, see the sections on Sentence-structure.
Non-reflexivc Use 1063. The compound pronouns are used as emphatic non-reflexive personal pronouns:
1. to form a subject; this is possible only when it is accompanied by another neun or pronoun, or after as, like and than.
■ Myself and my two brothers once owned a schooner. One of our party and myself started on an expedition. I am really astonished that such a useful industrious person as yourself should have been overcome by this suggestion.
Unfortunately his subordinates were less scrupulous than himself. Davis, Med. Europe, p. 34.
His love of acting was stronger than himself.
Ward, Dickens p. 11.



120
Pronouns
2. to form a predicate, an object, or a prepositional adjunct.
"What do you mean?" asked the bishop's friend.
"I mean," returned the bishop with a smile, "that that poor boy was myself."
The difficulties which their fathers then met are the same as those which confront themselves. Times Lit. 22/6, 17.
Mrs. Woodward's family consisted of herself and three daughters. Trollope, Three Clerks, p. 122.
Then she left Molly to herself. Gaskell, Wives II p. 231.
1064. We can also use the simplè forms in an emphatic function. See 1072.
They may before long have to fight hard with competitors at least as able as they. Times W. 31/12, 1909.
When I and Donne urged him to make a choice amongst the fair bevy, he named, which do you think?
Brontë, Shirley.
It was happy for the Bev. Amos Barton that he did not, like us, overhear the conversation.
Eliot, Scènes of Glerical Life.
Michael hoped this precaution would prevent at any rate the porters from commenting upon the freshness of him and his friend. Sinister Street, p. 499.
Adjectival Use 1065. The compound pronouns are also used to emphasize:
1. a subject-pronoun.
He himself — my brother-in-law, came back by train.
Jerome, Three Men in a Boat ch. 1.
If you wish a thing done well you must do it yourself.
If one does not know something of them oneself....
I heard it from a lady who herself was present.
How the European will be able to hold his own against it (viz. the minute and subtle economical and. ulilitarian character of the Chinese) and how it itself will deal with lai ge problems are absorbing auestions. Times. W.



Compound Personal Pronouns
121
2. a noun, which may be any part of the sentence.
Wormwood himself could not have succeeded better.
Bulwer, Pelham, ch. 11, p. 26. The story of the creation told by Moses is simplicity and sobriety itself when compared with them. I saw the man himself, not his wife.
The emphasis expressed by the compound pronouns usually serves to contrast two ideas. But sometimes it has a different function; in the following quotation Mrs. B. herself means even Mrs. B.
He») gave up his weekly holiday to this business of friendship, and he must be allowed to conduct the business in his own way. Mrs. Baines herself avoided dislurbing Mr. Critchlow's ministrations on her husband.
Bennett, Old W. T. I ch. 2 § 1.
See also the sections on Attributive Pronouns in the chapter on Order of Words.
1066. The use of the compound pronoun to emphasize a pronoun that is not the subject of the sentence is rare.
She hardly dared to take him to task, him himself;
Trollope, Framley ch. 14 p. 132. «Oh, John," she said, "do you think it is right—for you yourself?" Grawford, Tale of a Lonely Parish, last ch.
1067. The simple self is used as a noun with a possesBive pronoun. In commercial (hence also in very colloquial or jocular) English it is used as part of a compound group.
Michael became his silent self again. Sinister Street p. 83. I am, dear Sirs, for self and partners, Yours most faithfully, Samuel Jackson. Thackeray, Hoggarly Diamond ch. 6.
1) i. e. Mr. Critchlow.



122
PfiONOUNS
If a man aays to me "Under the circs" I call it vulgarity. If a man says to me "For self and friend" I call it vulgarity.
Chesterton, Daily News.
1068. Like. the simple personal pronouns (1052), the compound pronouns are sometimes used reflexively in archaic or literary English with verbs that are always intransitive in spoken English.
Montaigne sat himself down, when he took refuge from the world in his famous tower, to describe himself.
Academy, 23/9, 1905.
1069. In literary English the compound pronouns are sometimes used as the emphatic subject of a sentence.
But what exactly was himself doing on the committee?
Sinister Street p. 588.
We have learned at last that ourselves must subdue the land, and that our own hands must build the city. Academy.
Himself would have branded them with the letters in the hue of fire. Meredith, Egoist.
1070. In the following sentence the compound pronoun may have been used because there is a doublé sentence.
His stable had caught fire, himself had been all but roasted alive. Meredith, B. Feverel.
1071. The form ourself is used, both as a reflexive and as an emphatic personal pronoun, when referring to a sovereign (who also uses we). We find both ourself and ourselves in newspaper articles when referring to the editorial we, also to represent man in general.. See 978.
We cannot persuade ourself (ourselves) that the Government is in earnest. Goncise Oxford Dict. s. v.
Can we imagine a world in which ourself does not exist? ib.



Attributive Possessives
123
Simple and Compound Personal Pronouns 1072. Both the simple personal pronouns and those with -self, -selves are used with strong stress. They are not identical in meaning. See also 1064.
o. Quinney was sensible of an ever-increasing exaltation and powers of speech which amazed him as much as the older man- Vachell, Quinneys* p. 15.
b. The Crescent, which was on the north side of Regent's Park, was not a sociable Crescent. The people living in it did not know each other; and at first none of them knew the Severins; but they all took some interes} in persons who were outwardly so unlike themselves.
Sidgwick, The Severins, ch. I. Thenceforward he had a mission, religious in its s.olemn intensity, to defend and save Daniël. He took the enterprise upon himself, spending the whole of himself upon it, to the neglecl of his business and the scorn of his healtb.
Bennett, Old Wives' Tale II ch. 5 § 2. The difference between a and b depends on the standpoint of the writer. In the quotation under a the writer is an observer; he observes that something amazed Quinney, hence htm. In the quotations under b the writer describes the thoughts of others, hence the reflexive themselves, himself.
Possessive Pronouns
Attributive Possessives 1073. The possessive pronouns are used as attributive adjectives (attrümtwe possessives) i). They are used in the same way as the pre-genitive (884).
1) They are frequently called eonjoint possessives, because the words are always phonetically joined on to the next word. The terminology should' be such as to show the parallelism of the genitive of nouns and the possessive pronouns.



124
Pronouns
Singular Plural
lst person mai my auer our
2nd „ juer your juer your
Masc. hiz his ~)
3rd „ Fem. heorfor i foar their
Neuter lts its J
We may add the forms thy [oai], thine [oain], used in literary English.
üse 1074. The attributive possessives correspond to the simple personal pronouns. They are also used in a reflexive function, and are in this respect the correlatives of the compound personal pronouns (unstressed). The attributive possessives, especially your, are also used in general statements referring to a special case, again like tfie personal pronouns (1027), but your often has an emotional (humorous) connotation. He has brought his books % Have you brought my books*?
When you do your best you don't like to be talked to like that.
Putting aside men of genius, who may succeed by mere cosmic force, your successful man of letters is your skilful tradesman. Gissing, New Grub Street ch. 1.
Your true reformer is blandly unconscious of distinctions; he bas no perception of proportions, no knowledge of values, in a word no sense of humour. Eng. Rev., Feb. '14.
He saw more than your fooi of a tourist generally sees.
1075. The correlative of the indefinite one when meaning anyone (1364—6) is one's. But in less careful English it is also our, and your, because the . speaker. is thinking of the indefinite we and you (1027).
1) Unlike some languages, English does not distinguish between a reflexive and a non-reflexive possessive of the third person.



Attributive Possessives
125
What else was she to say? What does one say in such a case? Our governesses teach us how pleasant and amiable an adornment is politeness, but not one of mine ever told me what I was to say when confronted by an announcement that I was to be included in somebody's prayers.
Elizabeth in Rügen.
In London one can go to bed without fearing to be murdered in your sleep.
1076. The possessive pronouns express the same kinds of relation as the attributive genitive of names of persons (883).
Even when the pronouns refer to other than persons the relation to the noun is the same as in their personal use. See e.g. the last quotation ef 1079.
The first person singular is frequent in some forms of address, both in the polite My lord, and in the familiar My boy, girl; also in letters: My dear John. Compare also mine host in 1089. The first person (singular or plural) is also used to refer to what ha8 been mentioned as connected with the speaker or writer in some way.
It sounds nothing to hear, but it was hellish to see. It wasn't like a man; it was like some damned Juggernaut. I gave a view-holloa, took to my heels, collared my gentleman, and brought him back.
Stevenson, Dr. Jekyll ed. Schutt p. 6. (See ib. p. 7 ff.).
But what did our Pen care? Thackeray, Pendennis I ch 5.
Sometimes the second person is used in addressing persons, as in Your Lordehip, Your Qrace, Your Majesty. Note that all these nouns are abstract.
Subjective 1077. With nouns denoting or suggesting an and Objeetive action the possessive generally has a clearly subjective function, just as the genitive of nouns (a). But we also find it used in an objeetive funetion (6). Pffigfi



126
Pbokoüns
a. Your speech will not fail to impress the public.
b. There were no legal reasons to justify his expulsion. The while, I look around at my books and pictures, tasting
the happiness of their tranquil possession. She (viz. the Princess) is much prettier than her pictures. Although Pope affected to call poetry an idle trade he devoted his whole life to its pursuit.
Dennis, Age of Pope p. 27. He had in earlier days seen her portrait.
Walpole, Duchess of Wrexe ch. 1 § 3.
1078. The distinction between subjective and objeetive is occasionally difficult.
By their conversion the Angles and Saxons were transformed into members of the community of Europe.
Pearsall Smith, Eng. Lang. p. 153.
1079. The objeetive possessive is regularly used (just as the genitive of nouns) when the headword denotes the agent of the action.
Our pursuers, accusers.
I begin by referring to two rnatters which seem to be unknown to many readers of Jane Austen, and which all her readers •) would certainly like to know. Bradley, Essays H.
That to the left was still entitled "father's chair," although its owner had not sat in it since long before the Grimean war.
Bennett, Old W. T. I ch. i § 3.
1080. In the following sentence the possessive is used because the preceding genitive is objeetive whereas the pronoun is subjective.
The town of Blantyre had been established by Scotch missionaries to preserve Livingstone's memory and his work.
Wells, Joan and Peter ch. 3 § 3.
1) But compare 893 and 922.



Attrjbüttve Possessives
127
1081. One noun is not often qualified by two attributive possessives or by an attributive possessive and a genitive (a) because one of the adjuncts can be put after the headword (6).
a. To understand something of the price at which their and our freedom is being purchased. Times Lit. 9/11, 17.
She went up into the bedroom on the second-fLoor, her and Sophia's old bedroom1). Bennett, Old W. Tale IV ch. 2 § 1.
b. Their freedom and ours.
Possessive- 1082. Instead of the objeetive possessive equivalent We often find the equivalent with of.
But we soon found ourselves out of sight of him
Sweet, Spoken English p. 00.
Bitter cold work; but it was colder for the poor wretches aboard the wreek, if they were alive to feel it. The thought of them made our own sufferings small.
The gracefulness of style which is another distinguishing mark of him.
1083. We also find of with a personal pronoun used as the equivalent of what may be lookett upon asa subjective possessive (a). It is especially found in some standing phrases (6), but it must be used when the personal pronoun is grouped with a noun or another pronoun that must have of to express the genitive-relation (ej. See also 1081, and 1087.
a. I must ask you carefully to observe the rhythm of them
Murray, Essays JU, 17. Arminius Wingrove was the name of him.
Snaith, Principal Girl, p. 44. The Kindergarten... whither he followed Miss Marrow, wondering at the size and ugliness of her.
Sinister Street p. 35. They had lines of fire along the sides of them. __ Wells, Country p. 95.
1) In this case the construction under b would be impossible.



128
Pronouns
b. Why Mr. Wrench should negleet her chüdren, she could not for the life of her understand. Eliot, Middlemarch.
Mr. Y. showed his character on the surface of him freely to all men. W. Gollins, No Name.
I knew what it was to be tossed in a blanket by him and the like of him. Hope, Holiday Stories.
c. Recounting the sufferings of himself and his followers on this occasion.
If you'11 trouble yourself to look after the ash of your tobacco, it might be the saving of me and all I have.
1084. Sometimes it is difficult to say whether we have the equivalent for an objeetive or a subjective possessive.
Wliile he recognizes the constitutional difficulties, he provides no help towards a solution of them.
Times Lit. 14/9, 17.
He's nearly recovered now; he's taken to stamp-collecting — the doctor says it'11 be the salvation of him if he'il only stick to it. Sweet, Spoken English p. 89.
You will be the death of me.
1085. The use of the equivalent is the rule when the pronoun forms an adjunct with both, all, etc.
I looked up and caught him by the hand. And the eyes of both of us were wet. The characters of both of you will be discussed. For the happiness of all of them.
There was something about the lot of us that meant mischief.
Stevenson, Dr. Jekyll p. 9.
1086. But the possessive also occurs in this case, at least in literary English. Note that all and both are used without as well as with of. It must be used after some, any, etc.
a. It will be well, therefore, before going further, to give the bare facts of both their lives. Bailey, Johnson.



Attributive Possessives
129
They bèlonged to that seqUestered playground of silliness which exists in all our minds.
Benson, Mr. Teddy ch. 1, p. 24.
It went to all our hearts. Stevenson, Treasure Island.
b. I'm taking the trouble of writing the true history for all of your benefits.
The brandy you've poured down both of your throats.
Jerrold, Gaudle.
The hopeless resignation that had settled on some of their faces. Black, Fortunatus.
There is not the slightest doubt in any of our minds that Davidson has really seen the place. Wells, Country p. 99.
1087. The po3sessive-equivalent in its subjective function is said to denote "corporeal or soul essence. The modern novelist in his effort to describe the most inherent quality is practically sure to use it. This idiom is, however, archaic and poetic; and in its earlier manifestations quite respectable1)."
More valuable seems the following observation by Sapir (Language p. 176): "It is significant that theirs is hardly ever used in reference to inanimate nouns, that there is some reluctance to so use their, and that its also is beginning to give way to of it. The appearance of it or the koks of it is more in the eurrent of the language than its appearance." This may account for the first quotation of 1083.
Another cause may be that of really serves to make the preceding noun into an adjunct (see the sections on of in Prepodtions). This would explain such a case as the third quotation of 1083, and also the following.
He was darning a stócking, which was red like the rest of him. Hardy, Beturn of the Native I ch. 8.
1088. Just as in the case of the genitive we sometimes find the possessive when the person (or animal) referred to
1) B. A. Wise, Modern Language Notes, December, 1921. Kruisinga, Handbook II. Accidence and Synlax. 2.
9



130
Pronouns
would rather seem to be the person concerned in the action of the predicative verb than the possessor. Very rarely both constructions are possible. Thus we can say Look straight into my face and Look me straight in the face. See Senteneestructure on the Dativus Sympathetieus (1878); also 1108.
a. His heart sank into his boots. He saved my life twice.
Cecilia bit her lips. Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 1 p. 17.
He feit her arms tremble, and so he turned his curly head and looked in her face. Burnett, Fauntleroy ch. 1.
When his fellow-townsmen condoled with him he laughed in their solemn faces. Vachell, Quinneys'.
b. The dog bit him in the leg. He shot himself through the leg.
With death staring them in the face, the men feit comfort in knowing that the women and chüdren were beyond the reach of harm. Van Neck, Easy Prose.
He stopped, however, and came back and looked her straight between the eyes with his steady, searching stare.
Phillpotts, Beacon I ch. 6 p. 49.
He turned round, looked me straight in the face for the first time since he has been here, and said, "Do I look like
Graf X (a great local celebrity), or like a monkey?"
Elizabeth.
Literary English 1089. In the literary English of the older periods, and in poetry, the independent possessive thy fSai] is used for the second person singular; see the quotations in 1051. Thine and mine are also used, but only before vowels. üld age, that dwelt upon thy years With softest and with stateliest grace, Hath sealed thine eyes, hath closed thine ears, And stilled the sweetness of thy face.
Lionel Johnson, In Memory of M. B. (p. 77).
The archaic mine host is sometimes used humorously in modern English.



Independent Possessives
131
Proudly mine host led Mrs. Bailey up the wide staircase.
Ghink in the Armour ch. 5.
Independent Possessives Forms 1090. Singular Plural lst person main mine . auez ours
2nd „ juoz yours
Masc. hiz his \ 3rd | Pem. hoez hers \ Ssez theirs
Neuter — — j
D»« 1091. The independent possessives1) are used in the same functions as the independent genitive of nouns (887), i. e. to refer to a noun in the sentence, as postpossessives, predicatively, and absolutely.
1092. In the following quotations the pronouns are used to refer to a noun in the sentence.
There ought to be an excellent setting for a readable novel to amuse poor folk in such a plight as mine.
Barbara p. 23.
Ours is emphatically a day of profound and rapid changes.
Athenaeum, 28/3, 14.
Come up with me to your rooms, and help me to pack up yours and your sisters' clothes.
In M. Meyer's experiments the time of vibration is shorter than in most of mine. Sweet in Herrig's Achiv.
1093. See also the sections on the prop-word one.
Post-Possessive 1094. Corresponding to the post-genitive of nouns (889 ff.) is the use of the possessive in a friend of yours. "Were are you going?" — "Never mind where I am going; it's nó business of yours." Sweet, Element, no. 27.
1) In contrast to the conjoint pronouns (see foot note to p. 123) these are also called absolute. See 984.



132
Pronouns
Upon my word, of all the horrid men I ever heard of, I think that this publisher of yours is the worst.
B, Haggard, Meeson's Will.
And what were you to do in Ostend? What were your instructions from this husband of yours?
A. Bennett, Grand-Babylon p. 85.
They seemed to belong to another age, an older age, an age when things spiritual were different from this of ours less certain; an age when omens and witches were credible, and ghosts beyond denying. Wells, Country p. 234.
A beautiful mare that is of yours. Bulwer, Pelham ch. 8.
What business was it of hers? Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 10.
1095. The post-possessive is frequent with a noun qualified hy a demonstrative pronoun in an affective function: see 1186.
Go and order some strawberries and cream for this father of yours. Gaskell, Wives I ch. 7.
And then I sit and think of that dearwife of mine that Host a quarter of a century ago. Morgan, Vance ch. 33 p. 327.
Say, can't you get that husband of yours to come right back from wherever he is? Hichens, Ambition ch. 27.
To Soames this was another grievance. He hated that pride of hers, and secretly dreaded it.
Galsworthy, Man of Property I ch. 4.
His mother hastily adopted the correction, and did not resent his making it, or retaliate, as she might well have done, by bidding him to wipe that crumby mouth of his, whose condition had been caused by surreptitious attempts to eat a piece of cake without taking it out of the pocket wherein it lay concealed. Hardy, Life's Little Ironies.
1096. The post-genitive is little used after nouns preceded by a definite article 1). In the following example the postpossessive refers to one previously mentioned.
1) Poutsma, ch. 33 p. 822 observes that the construction seems to have some degree of currency when there is a clause or an adjunct to deflne the noun.



Independent Possessives
133
He told them that the house of theirs to which he alluded was this their church. Trollope, Barchester p. 192.
1097. The objeetive post-possessive is rare (a), except when the headword expresses the agent (b).
a. It is thought that this Old Saxon poem was
written by the writer of the Heliand or by some imitator of his in Old Saxony. Stopford Brooke, Ghamber's Cyclop. 1,22.
Naturally therefore, we should expect to find her a great landscape painter....; nor may a student of hers teil whether he cares more for her people or for the keen air and the scent of the moor. Times Lit. 13/4, 16.
b. A worshipper of hers. Trollope, Barchester ch. 27.
1098. Instead of the post-possessive we also find the personal pronoun with of, not only in its objeetive meaning, but also when the meaning is rather subjective. See 1083, and the explanation of the rest of him in 1087.
But presently a side of him was revealed in sentiments that gave her little joy. Phillpotts, Beacon I ch. 5.
It was the amateur side of him which made John give up his stage career. Times Lit. 23/12, 15.
1099. As in the case of the genitive we also find a possessive with an indefinite pronoun (chiefly every) before the word they qualify.
The chüdren hung on his every word.
Montgomery, Misunderstood ch. 3. This taak will take up his every spare moment.
Daily News, 9/2, 12. Gacti were planted on its either side.
R. Haggard, The Holy Flower.
1100. A combination of a demonstrative and a possessive pronoun before a word is found only in distinctly literary English. See 1333.



134
Pronouns
In the profound stillness, the trotting of a horse beyond the still water sounds strangely near; it serves only to make more sensible the repose of nature in this her sanctuary.
He has made them, in this his first description, hardly less than studies of social environment and character.
Camb. Hist. Engl. Lit. IX p. 52.
Nature, unconquered and unconquerable in these her remote fastnesses of flood and forest. Times Lit. 25/3, 15.
Predicative 1101. The independent possessives are also used Possessive predicatively. They always express possession in
spoken English (a); but in literary English they are occasio-
nally used in other functions.
a. The books are mine, but you may borrow them, if you like.
They (i. e. the English barons) treated the whole matter as one between themselves and the royal favourites who stood between them and the offices which they regarded as righttully theirs. Constitutional Essays p. 163.
b. It was theirs to lay the foundation, it has been his to raise the arch. Times W. 30,'8, 18.
"High exploits" (and some low ones) were his in plenty.
Times Lit. 4/11, 15.
1102. In spoken English the only construction of the type mentioned under 6 is the truly (affectionately, etc.) yours in letters. To denote the agent the prepositional accusative and infinitive (a) is generally used (379 ff.); but there are other constructions that convey the same meaning (b).
a. It is not for the queen to make such regulations; it is for the Secretary. Maitland, Constit. Hist. p. 415.
"Well, if your own people are content with you," said Bessy Alden, laughing, "it is not for me to complain."
H. James, Daisy Miller p. 212. Italy has her own objects; what they are Mr. Bainville explains. It is not for us to criticize them.
Times Lit. 15/6, 16.



Independent Possessives
135
b. These rules, though they have grown more strict since the beginning of the century, are and must be vague; there is no impartial tribunal to enforce them. It does not belong to us to discuss them. Maitland, Constit. Hist. p. 404.
For it was his business to notice things, and embalm them afterward in ink. Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 1.
Absolute 1103. The independent possessives are used in Possessive combination with the personal pronouns to denote a person's family.
Please send me one line (or more), with news of you and yours. Life of Ainger p. 142.
While our labourers are treated and housed more like dogs than human beings,..., neither I nor mine are going to rest.
Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 22.
Literary English 1104. In literary English we occasionally, though rarely, meet with the independent neuter pronoun its [its]. The following sentences are the only examples I have ever met with. The use is, no doubt, purely artificial.
If every thing had its story, the mistletoe would have its.
Allen, Bride of the Mistletoe. But the body has its function also, without which the soul could not fulfil its. Grierson, Gommentary on Donne p. 44.
The Emphatic Possessive
1105. The possessive pronouns can be made emphatic by adding own. They are also reflexive, and are used both attributively and predicatively. They may also be used in the function of an objeetive possessive, as in the last of the following instances.
It is my own house.
I have come of my own accord.
Of Canon Ainger we may almost say that he has become prominent in his own despite. Times. To the annoyance of his agent the earl occasionally asked



138
Pbokodns
his own questions, and used his own eyes and ears in the management of the smaller details of his property.
Gaskell, Wives I ch. 1. His style .was entirely his own. Times Lit. 16/12, 20. If deceived I have been my own dupe.
Bulwer, Money III, 4.
1106. If the noun is also qualified by another word than a possessive or a genitive (a), or if it is used in a general sense (o), the emphatic post-possessive, corresponding to the post-genitive of nouns (889), is used.
a, But taken as a whole, the scène has a wild beauty of its own. Green, Short Hist. 1 sec. 2.
I've tried to plan you a house with some self-respect ot its own. Galsworthy, Man of Property ch. 8, p. 107.
b. The authoress has convictions of her own to expound.
Times Lit. 19/10, 16. Lapland, indeed, has amenities of its own.
Times Lit. 12/10, 17.
1107. Occasionally, though exceptionally, we find both own and an attributive pronoun or article before the headword.
But it is time to go on to the French, Spanish, and Italian. These three languages, I need hardly teil you, are the own children of the Latin. Stubbs, Early Engl. Hist. p. 231.
There was, however, for me an own battle to fight.
R. H. Sherard, Oscar Wilde.
I let it be known, by some hap, that I was the own cousin of Tom Faggus. Blackmore, Lorna Doone ch. 24, p. 153.
Attributive Possessives and the Definite Article
1108. The attributive possessives are sometimes used to express a vague relation, so that we also find the definite article. The possessives are the usual forms before names of parts of the body. The last instance shows that there is



Attributive Possessives and the Definite Article
187
a real difference between the two constructions even when both would be possible. Compare 1088.
Minnie remained straining out of the window for a minute. Then she drew her head back into the room again.
Wells, Country of the Blind. Barnell, who had a bullet wound through hls left wristand another behind the right ear, was taken to the infirmary.
Daily News.
Here he (i.e. Death) would take the husband from the wife, here the child from its mother, here the statesman from his duty, and here the toiler from his trouble.
Wells, Country of the Blind.
She who had always submitted and bowed the head, submitled and bowed the head then.
Bennett, Anna of the Five Towns ch. 14.
The operator (viz. in a picture theatre or cinema) sustained burns about the hands and arms, but his injuries were not serious. Daily Mail
He sat at his desk with the letter in his hand, dazed for the moment, breathing hard, very red in the face.
Vachell, Quinneys'.
Isabel had the carriage driven to the Osborns.. Allen, Mettle.
The man was wounded in the shoulder.
He has an affection of the heart.
He finished the sentence with a shake of the head.
It chanced that at that moment Griselda, Marchioness of Hartletop, was gracing the paternal mansion. It need hardly be said that the father was not slow to invoke such a daughter's counsel, and such a sister's aid. I am not quite sure that the mother would have been equally 'quick to ask her daughter's advice, had she been left in the matter entirely to her own propensities.
Trollope, Last Chron. of Barset ch. II p. 14.
The question is sometimes asked why well-meaning, quiet, good people, perhaps not very strong in the head, in their desire to pursue religion in peace, seek the Communion of the Church of Rome. Pilot 12/9, 1903.



138
Pronouns
Old Joe had always been behind his times.
Vachell, Quinneys' ch. 1.
Brun, round and neat, and a citizen of the world from the crown of his head to the top of his shining toes, tapped Arkwright on his shoulder.
Walpole, Duchess of Wrexe ch. 1.
She dashed the cup into its saucer.
Bennett, Old W. Tale I ch. 2 § 1.
"You're all very devoted to that child," she said...
"I don't know that Maggie's so desperately keen on the infant!" he said.
"She's not like you about him, that's sure!" Mrs. Hamps admitted. And she went on in a tone that was only superficially casual, "I wonder the mother doesn't come down to him!"
Not "his" mother — "the" mother. Odd, the effect of that trifle! Mrs. Hamps was a great artist in phrasing.
Bennett, Glayhanger, IV ch. 10 § 2.
Interrogative Pronouns
Forms 1109. hu who wits which wot what huz whose hum whom.
The interrogative pronouns do not distinguish number. With respect to gender they distinguish between animate and inanimate; see Gender of Nouns.
Use 1110. The interrogative pronouns, both the simple and the compound ones, are used in interrogative sentences. For the use of these pronouns in adjuncts and in subordinatie clauses, see the chapter on Relative Pronouns.
Who HU. Who (whose, whom) asks after pers ons generally. Who stands either with a singular or with a plural predicate. Whose is used in the genitive-relations. As



Interrogative Pronouns
139
the direct object and in a prepositional adjunct the pronoun is usually [hu], rarely [hum], but the writteD form is mostly whom.
Verbs that are usually connected with an indirect object take the prepositional adjunct to whom, or for whom. For the reason why whom cannot be an indirect object, see 875 and 982.
Who won the victory?
Who were at war in India?
Whom shall I put down for a pound?
I was going downstairs, when who should I meet but Betty's second-cousin. Mrs. Gaskell, Granford.
"Whom did *you see?" is correct, but there is something false about its correctness l). Sapir, Language p. 168.
What 1112. What is used when asking after things in general. The subject what has a singular predicate. In connection with such verbs as to avail, care, matter, signify it is an adverb rather than an object2).
What does se ven and eight make? What is the half of twelve?
What are the commonest forms of nerve injuries amongst our soldiere? Times Lit.
What was Italy's position in the Trentino at the end of last summer's campaign? Times Lit. 1/8, 16.
What was Livingstone's Christian name?
What did you say?
What do you call such a triangle?
What do we, as a nation, care about books?
Ruskin, Sesame.
1113. What is used, like it (944 ff.), to refer to persons, but only to identify (a), and to refer to a person in a disparaging way (b).
1) i. e. it is artificial.
2) Cf. the same use of nothing.



140
Pronouns
a. "Please, ma'am, it's only fair to say, but it's not Miss Bessie."
"What is not Miss Bessie? I mean, who is not Miss Bessie?" "Her as is spying on me" ').
Baring-Gould, in Swaen 1 p. 5.
b. "Do you know her well?" asked Michael, for Clara's tone Was not promising.
"Oh! we know her for a crank," said Clara. "What sort of crank?" .
"Well — the sort that takes up with impossible people — you really never know what j) you may meet in Agnes . Hyde's rooms. I should recommend you to take your sister away from her." Mrs. Sidgwick, The Severins ch. 16.
1114. The predicative what is also used to refer to persons.
In reality what refers, not to the person but to his quality, profession, etc; it is used in a descriptive meaning, whereas who is used to identify.
What is your young fellow's name? Who is he? What is he? Meredith, Harrington ch. 28 p. 294.
Who was he? What was he? Sinister Street p. 649.
"What is this Madame Flauve? Is she a lady?" Cook asked. ib. p. 46.
"Miss Jenkyns is an old pig*"
"Who is Miss Jenkyns?" asked Michael, understanding that some appeal was being made to his sympathy....
"She is Sydney's aunt," said Clotilda. "She lives just opposite, and Sydney made her call,...
Mrs. Sidgwick, The Severins ch. 6.
"Who is Marie Petersen?" he asked, when his mother came into the garden again....
"She is a Russian," said Mrs. Se verin; "a very clever woman. She speaks six languages, and has a contralto voice
1) A ghost.
3) Printed thus in the original.



Interrogative Pronouns
141
that harmonizes with Clotilda's soprano. But she is really Selma's friend." "Who is Kremski?"
"He is — Kremski," said Mrs. Sfeverin, looking thoroughly uncorofortable. He manufactured the bomb that Marie — dear little Marie — threw at the Russian general ib.
Then the major announced himself.
•My name is Major Grantly," said he; and he was blundering on with some words about his own intrusion, when Mrs. Dale begged him to follow her into the drawing-room. He had muttered something to the effect that Mrs. Dale would not know who he was, but Mrs. Dale knew all about him, and had heard the whole of Grace's story from Lily.
Trollope, Last Ghronicle ch. 28.
1115. What is also used adjectivally, to ask after persons and things generally.
What rich man is not poor in some respect; what poor man is not rich in another? Vachell, Brothers II ch. 9, p. 80. What English poets can you name? What nation has become master of India? In what direction did he go? What elements are contained in water? For what exploit did Lieutenant Forsbaw get the V. G.?
Times Lit. 18, 16.
1116. To ask after the quality of persons or things what manner of, what kind of, what sort of are used. See the sections on the Indefinite Article, 1309 f.
What sort of a man is he to see?
Stevenson, Dr. Jekyll p. 12. She was the daughter of a respected, bed-ridden draper in an insignificant town, lost in the central labyrjntb. of England, if you like; yet what manner of man, confronted with her, would or could have denied her naïve claim to dominion?
Bennett, Old Wives' Tale I ch. 1 § 2. By the way, teil me something about Sir Hubert Pine. I



142
Pronouns
have only met him once or twice. What kind of man is he?
Fergus Hu me, Red Money, p. 19. What sort of a man is he? Everyman, 1/11, 12.
1117. What is also used in exclamatory sentences, both as a noun and as an adjective. It is formally distinguished from the interrogative what by the use of the indefinite article before singular class-nouns. See 1247. It is also used as an interjection, as in the last quotation.
What was my surprise when I heard he had resigned his post.
What a charming little lady that daughter of yours is!
Gaskell, Wives vol. 2 p. 114. What a sense of freedom it gives not to write by the yard or the column. Holmes, Over the Teacups p. 8.
What silly fools we have all been! Times W. 26/1, 17. What! are the ladies of your land so tall?
Tennyson, Princess H, 33.
Which 1118. Which is used, both as a noun- and as an adjective-pronoun, when we think of a choice of one or more out of a number. It refers to persons and to things.
Which is the worst off, I wonder — the one that is left, or the one that is gone — the one that sees no longer or the one that still sees, or it may be sees more than ever before? De Morgan, Vance ch. 41.
Which of you can give the correct answer at once to this question?
Miss Smith. "Now, Madge, teil me, which would you rather be — pretty or good?"
Madge (promptly). "I would rather be pretty, Miss Smith; I can easily be good whenever I like to try."
Which produces the truer portrait, the art of a master hand or the mechanics of the photographer? Times Lit 19/4,18.
Which of our divisions was called "The Old Guard of Gallipoli"? Times Lit. 1/8, 16.



Which Compared with who and what
14$
You promised to fix a day early next week, you know, father. Which day shall it be?
Montgomery, Misunderstood, ch. 14.
"Yes I do know some one here after all I That funny-Iooking couple over there were at Aix-les-Bains all last summer."
Which people do you mean?" asked Sylvia eagerly.
Ghink in the Armour ch. 5.
Miss E. M. Delafield is the Cordelia of modern novelists. Which other of them gives so much with such few pretensions. There are no decorative flourishes to her titles, her style, or her plots. Times Lit. 5/10, 22.
1119. As the interrogative pronouns do not distinguish number, the adjective-pronoun which is sometimes followed by the propword one, ones to denote the number. The use of one after what is very rare 1).
May I ask you, which one of the Universities?
Meredith, Amazing Marriage ch. 8, p. 82. I have a large stock in many colours. Which one(s) do you choose?
"Here's your ticket. Put it in your waistcoat-pocket now." — "But I haven't got a waistcoat on, silly." — "Which one are you going to put on?"
Which Compared with who and what
1120. We sometimes find what (both as a noun-pronoun and as an adjective-pronoun) and who, in cases where we might expect which. Conversely, which is very often used where we might expect who or what. It should be remembered, however, that who and what, or which, are in many cases equally possible, according to the idea in the speaker's mind.
In teaching English the most effective course of all seems to be this: having selected an exemplary passage, first to
1) There are some three instances in Poutsma's book, p. 1298.



144
Pronouns
assign its peculiar excellence and its deficiency, and next to point out what things contribute to the one, what to the other, and what are indifferent to both.
Bain, Companion, Preface p. VII.
As Disraeli remarks in one of his most illuminating phrases, 'Few ideas are correct ones, and what are correct no one can ascertain but with words we govern men'.
Say what moods the following verbs are in.
I have left to the last the most interesting inquiry of all. What virtues were these institutions the most likely to foster, and which to neglect? Stubbs, Lecl. Early Engl. Hist. p. 16.
aOf course," said Sophia to Fossette, "she expects me to go to her, instead of her coming to mei And yet who's the busiest?" Bennett, Old Wives' Tale IV ch. 1 § 5.
"You must piek and choose, Betty. 'Tis the privilege of
your sex. Come now, who pleases you best?" "She
likes the boys, the coquettel" exclaimed the Admiral. "And which of the three, missie, do you like best?"
Vachell, Brothers, 1 p. 18.
In what part of London was a tomb erected with a Persian inscription ?
It does not really matter to what part of Europe the old President turns his steps.
Who amongst us would ask of any man to sign his own death-warrant ?
Who is to be successful — our grave friend William or his handsome rival? ')
Who, of all those guileless lambs then, Philip of Spain, the Elector of Saxony, or Cardinal Granvelle, had been deceived by the language of the Prince?
Which rural parish in England was the first to adopt the Public Libraries Act? , Which newspaper has published the largest leading article? In which country does all the land belong to the State? 1) Note that who is here first used in a general meaning, which is then limited by what may be considered an afterthought. This explanation also accounts for the pause (denoted by a comma) after who in the example following this quotation.



Compound Interrogative Pronouns
145
Compound Interrogative Pronouns
1121. The compound interrogative pronouns with -ever are used in interrogative sentences to express surprise, impatience, or dissatisfaction on the part of the speaker. The distincüóns between whoever, whatever, and whiehever, are the same as between the simple pronouns. The forms whose-ever, whomever are hardly ever used. Whiehever, too, is rare. See the compound relatives: 1149 ff.
Whoever would have thought of meeting you?
Whoever has been so stupid as to turn over the inkstand?
Whatever are you up to, old man?
Vachell, Quinneys' p. 194. Whatever's the matter with you? Sinister Street p. 83. Which ever Brown do you mean? Goncise Oxf. Dict. Whatever contrivance is that? Oxf. Dict.
1122. In vulgar English the pronoun is sometimes separated from ever by some word. According to some grammarians the compound interrogatives ought to be spelt in two words (see the last two quotations in the preceding section); this 'rule' is not generally followed, however, and it does not séem easy to see why the compound interrogatives should be distinguished (in spelling) from the compound relatives. I i
"What has ever got your precious father then?" said Mrs. Gratchit. Dickens, Christmas Carol, stave 3.
Interrogative Adverbs
1123. The adverbs when, where, why, how, and the compounds whenever, etc. are related to the interrogative pronouns in form and meaning, but do not call for any special remarks.
In literary English . where with a preposition is also used to express what in spoken English would be rendered by a preposition with what: wherein, whereof, etc; but these forms are extremely rare. The Oxford Dict. has one quotation later than the 18» century s.v.v. whereby, whereof, whereon. Compare 1053, 1179 and 1213.
Krüisinga, Handbook II. Aceidence and Syniax. 2
10



146
Pronouns
Simple Relative Pronouns
1124. The simple relative pronouns are who, what, which. They are used in two ways:
1. anaphorically, i.e. with an antecedent noun or pronoun or a noun-equivalent. The antecedent is a noun or pronoun in the common case, hardly ever a possessive or a noun in the genitive. The antecedent may also he a sentence.
2. independently, i.e. without an antecedent.
Anaphoric Relative Pronouns in Adjective Clauses
1125. The anaphoric relative pronouns in adjective clauses are:
hu who wits which huz whose hum whom
The relative who, like the interrogative who, refers to animate beings only. The relative which, unlike the interrogative which, does not generally refer to persons. Compare 1138 and 1152.
Who 1126. Who (whose, whom) are used after personal antecedents in all kinds of adjective clauses (a), including the apparent adjective clauses (6).
Who is used as a subject, not as a predicate (see 1162). Whose is used in the genitive-relations. Whom is used as a direct object and in a prepositional adjunct. See 1111.
a. It belonged to my servant Bannister, a man who has looked after my room for ten years, and whose honesty is absoiuteiy above suspicion.
Gharmian looked at Glaude Heath, who was silent.
Hichens, Ambition ch. 2 p. 23.
A gentleman who had travelled in Africa told his friends that he and his servant once made fifty wild Arabs run. All who heard the story were amazed.



Anaphoeic Relatives
The man who calléd yesterday left no address.
He is a man who, if convinced of his right, will never give in.
A benevolent tutor whose reform from an unfortunate weakness was so delicately brought about.
Athenaeum, 6/1, 12.
There must be somebody to whom he might talk, to whom he might explain exactly why this occasion was of so stirring an importance, Walpole, Huchess of Wrexe, I ch. 1.
There comes back to me a bowed and uncouth figurewhóm one used to see in the cathedral procession on a Sunday.
Mrs. H. Ward, Harper's Mag. May 1918.
b. Everyone was fond of the poor old woman; but it was Molly who had no fear of her at all,
Moore, Untilled Field p. 248.
The Great Spirit gave these hnnting-grounds to us his chüdren, and it is the pale-face who intrudes upon them, who comes here without any right.
But it is Southey for whom Bagehot reserves his fiercest ,waÜL Times Lit. 29/7, 15.
1127. Who is also found when the antecedent is the name of an animal. See 955.
(We heard) the trotting of horses, who were evidently approaching rapidly.
B. M. Croker, Serpent's Tooth (T.) p. 26. The saneer for the bigger dog, who would have made two of Spot, was not half full.
Bennett, Old W. Tale IV ch. 3 § 1.
1128. Whose is not unusual when the antecedent is not the name of a person, but this practice is confined to literary English.
We came quite suddenly upon its railway-station, a «mail budding alone in the woods, the terminus of the line whose other end is Putbus. Eiiz. in Rügen.
On a given straight line to construct a triangle whos'dlhree
sides shall be equal.
147



148
Pronouns
A party of hunters had descended this path into the desert in search of ostriches, whose plumes are much prized among them for war head-dresses.
So we drove on to the end hotel, from whose terrace we could look down at the deserted sands and the wonderful colour of the water. Eliz. in Rügen.
England is a country whose population is perpetually overflowing her narrow geographical limits.
Escott, England I p. 8.
1129. Special mention may be made of whom after prepositions to connect an infinitive with a noun denoting a person.
These were excellent fellows from whom to accept a cigarette or sometimes even an invitation to lunch at a Soho restaurant. Sinister Street p. 299.
1130. The use of than whose, than whom, than which in negative comparative clauses is found only in more or less affected literary English.
She turned once more to the darkness, than which he had said there was nothing nicer.
Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 8 p. 103. But those who think of him (viz. Henley) merely as a literary Bombastes Furioso had better read him on Matthew Arnold, and learn his particuliar enthusiasm for " Balder Dead," k than which there is no great English poem more restrained • and austere. Academy, 17/8, 12.
ï It is for a Frenchman, M. Delattre, to write the best book on Herrick, than whom none of our poets is more characterX^Sstically national. ib. .... and so did his maiden aunt, Miss Monica Thorne, than whose no kinder heart glowed through all Barsetshire.
Trollope, Dr. Thorne ch. Al.
H3W;The use of whom being artificial, it is natural that whom, should be used sometimes where the pronoun is really



Anaphoric Relatives
149
in the subjéet-relation, but may seem to be an object in a tjonstruction reminding one of the accusative with infinitive.
Ten or eleven years ago — it can hardly be more — a note from Mr. Yeats served to introducé a new acquaintance, whom he said had shared adventures with a brother of the present writer's in America. Everyman 20/12, 12.
A contributor whom I knew possessed a decided talent for circumlocution found. (on his Ms. being returned with the proof) his article so transformed that his claims to be the author were certainly dubious. ib.
But here was a woman whom, he was convinced, absolutely adored him, and who yet proposed to release him without reproaches....
Elinor Glyn, The Contrast and other stories 1913, p. 12.
I assure you, Stella has not been for an instant absent from me, except yesterday morning when she went to Thermae Museum with Martha, whom you know has proved by twentyfive years of faithful service that she can be completely trusted. ib. p. 154.
The young person whom she regretted to hear was a Dissenter. Kenealy, Mrs. Grundy, p. 96.
Which 1132. Whïeh is used when the antecedent is not a person, in all kinds of adjective clauses (a), also in apparent adjective clauses (0). It can be used as any part of the adjective clause (subject, object, predicate, prepositional adjunct) but it cannot be used as a non-prepositional adverb adjunct: see 1159.
a. The fire which caused the disaster broke out in the top floor of the factory. Times W. 26/1, 17.
The earliest form of community of which we can find a tracé is that described by Tacitus.
Stubbs, Lect. Early Eng. Hist. p. 5. The attendance of a representative of the United Stafes distinguishes this Conference from all which have preceded it.
Times W. 30/11, '17.



ISO
Pronouns
The problem of government for these new churches was a grave one. It was hopeless to look to Rome, which to all appearance was incorrigible. Watson, Ghurch of England p. 117.
ö. It is this fact which gives the book its peculiar value.
Times Lit. 22/6, 16.
But it was especially her eyes which attracted John's sudden attention at that first glance. Grawford, Lonely Parish ch. 2.
1133. Which is used as the nominal predicate or as the predicative adjunct to an object when the noun denotes a person as well as when it has other meanings. On the adjectival character of predicative nouns, see Sentence-Structure.
Moreover it (viz. the poem) is scarcely worthy in form of the virtuoso which Mr. Hardy was presently to become.
E. Gosse, Edinb. Rev. April 1918, p. 275. Ignorance remains the evil which it ever was, but something of the peace of certitude is gained by knowing the worst.
Morley, Gompromise p. 132. He was not quite the era ven.... which she thought him.
Newman, Callista (Oxf. Dict.).
1134. Which is used adjectively in continuative adjectiveclauses.
Rider Haggard has done for the Zulus at least as much as Cooper has done for the Red Indians of North America, which latter delighted in nothing so much as the torture of their captives. Spectator.
Their stay in the United States lasted about four months, during which time they saw Boston, New York, etc.
Ward, Dickens ch. 3, p. 49.
The Gohley girls accused him of cruelty to the bet utiful dame, which novel idea stung Harry with delight.
Meredith, Harrington ch. 30, p. 319.
1135. Which can also refer to antecedents (not denoting persons) in adjuncts with an infinitive.



Anaphoric Relatives
151
About tbe artist we wish Mr. Bailey could have had the space in which to say more. Times Lit. 1/4, 15.
At seven o'clock Mr. de Courcy and his friends got down from their carriage at the smaller door — for this was no day on which to mount up under the portico.
Trollope, Dr. Thorne p. 206.
Peter's nursery was a perfect room in which to batch the soul of a little boy. Wells, Joan and Peter ch. 2 § 2.
Collective 1136. When collective nouns denoting perNouns sons are construed as plurals because the individuals forming the group are thought of, the relative pronoun is naturally who (o). If the collective idea predominates the relative which is used (6).
a. The young couple moved northwards to a new station, and began to work among a tribe who soon learned to love them.
They were not of the kind who invite you to their houses and having you thus in their power try to pierce you with little insults.
The party who had agreed to congregate there — the party, that is, whom we are to meet — was very select.
Trollope, Three Clerks p. 292.
h. The French army which surrendered at Sedan was 100.000 men strong.
In the following passage which is probably used because the antecedent contains both a collective name of persons and the name of a thing.
Enough of daylight was left to show how strange were the place and people among which they found themselves.
1137. In all the examples of relative clauses given so far the relative is connected with a finite verb. It may, however, also be connected with a non-finite verb (infinitive, gerund, participle). More examples will be found in tb.e



152
Peonouns
aections on the place of Relative Pronouns in the chapter on Word-órder.
Then another event occurred which we must go back a little way to explain. R. Haggard, Meeson ch. 13.
The coming weeks will bring with them a strain on the Red Cross against which we shall need all our energy to provide. Times W. 26/4, '18.
There was a party at Monsieur de V-e's, to which Vincent and myself were the only Englishmen invited.
Relative Clauses referring to a Sentence
1138. What and which are used in the coordinate relative clauses. As a rule what is used when the relative clause precedes the clause it refers to (a); whieh when the relative clause follows (b). Deviations from this, however, are far from rare, which being especially frequent in opening clauses (c).
a. The fellow had a key; and what's more he has it still.
Stevenson, Dr. Jekyll p. 13. It is not for me to teil all she said, even supposing (what is not likely) that any one cared to know it.
Blackmore, Lorna Doone ch. 35 p. 231.
b. I had taken a loathing to my gentleman at first sight. So had the child's family, which was only natural.
Stevenson, Dr. Jekyll p. 7. She had a pleasant voice, and read aloud well and distinctly, which Lady Cumnor liked. Gaskell, Wives I ch. 9 p. 143.
c. He feit (what was rare with him) a nausea and distaste of life ')■ Stevenson, Dr. Jekyll p. 28.
He was ready to do a good turn for his connections, if it occasioned him no loss of time, and if (which was, perhaps, a primary condition) he remembered their existence.
Gaskell, Wives II p. 288. Further examples of which so used are to be found in
1) It seems that what was understood by the writer to refer to the object of feit.



Anaphoric Relatives
153
Blackmore's Lorna Doone (ch. 46 p. 318), Martland Justice and PoUee (p. 2), W. de Morgan, Aliee for Short (p. 139), and in two quotations referred to by A Trampe Bödtker in Anglia Beibl. 26, 13.
1139. Which is also used to refer to an adjective which serves as the predicate of the relative clause. Compare the
> use of which to refer to a personal antecedent noun, 1138.
When over-wrought, which he often was, he became acutely irritable. C. Brontë, Villette ch. 30 p. 352.
Even if the pronunciations described were one and all vulgar, which they certainly are not... Wyld, Growth p. 73.
(I was) also abused, and taken amiss, and (which vexed me most of all) unknown. Blackmore, Lorna Doone ch. 64 p. 483.
Independent Belative Pronouns
1140. The-simple relatives not referring to an antecedent are who (whose, whom), what, which. All of them serve to introducé subject clauses, object clauses, and predicate clauses, or they are used in adverb clauses opening "with an infinitive. The distinctions between the three pronouns are the same as those between the interrogatives; like these, the relatives what and which are also used adjectivally. Compare 1125.
^ Noun-clauses H41. The noun-pronouns who and what are used in all kinds of noun-clauses, both those preceding the headclause, and those following. In the former function who is not frequently used. Noun-clauses following the headclause may be dependent statements, questions or exclamations; as English does not make a formal difference between them there is no reason to discuss them separately here.
a. Who only knows the country in spring, summer, and autumn is no country lover. Times W. 22/2, 18.
Whom they (i.e. Stevenson's books) shall influence, he has influenced. PUot 26/10, 1901.



154
Pronouns
It is much in thé king's power to summon whom he will, to take the advice of whom he will.
Maitland, Constit. Hist. p. 163. Gonsidering where the school stands, whose eyes are upon it, and what its devoted staff has, under most adverse conditions, already accompUshed, it is a matter of real national importance that a future exempt from restriction and anxiety should be definitely assured to it Times Ed. S. 7/11, 18.
Mr. Slope turned over in his mind whether it would be well for him to teil this termagant at once that he should call on whom he liked. Trollope, Barchester ch. 17.
I would have given anything to know whoJ) he was thinking of. Cotes, Ginderella ch. 1 p. 8.
There was a longer fight about who should be king.
Goodspeed, History. b. "What I feel about your brother," said the Duchess handsomely, "is that he's not a foreigner."
Cotes, Ginderella ch. 18, p. 208. I was unable to resolve the question to my own satisfaction—whether what had been seen was a real person, who obtained access to the house in some unaccountable manner, or whether it was, what I have called it, an apparition.
Baring-Gould in Swaen I p. 9. "Nothing," says Goethe, "is more significant of men's character than what they find laughable." Eliot, Essays (T.) p. 71.
It is not a text-book; it is more like what our Board of Education would call "Suggestions to Teachers and Others".
Times Ed. S. 22/5, 19. All through the time between the Norman Conquest and Chaucer one feels that the Court is what determines the character of poetry and prose. Ker, Eng. Lit p. 102. 1
The distinction between what are known as higher elementary and secondary teaching respectively is the vital matter to appreciate. Times Ed. S. 5/10, 15.
He must be the kind of man whom other men can trust
1) Note who for the literary whom.



Independent Relatives
155
and work with. That is just what Fox somehow failed to be.
Times Lit. 5/2, 20. The small creature opened what there was of window.
Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 11 p. 129.
1142. The relative what is also used adjectively. It often suggests a limited number or quantity: thus what certainties in the first quotation means the few certainties that (o). This meaning is sometimes made clearer by adding UtÜe or few (b).
a. Let's hold on to what certainties we can.
Sinister Street p. 892.
My father is a man of few aflections, but what he has are very strong. Gaskell, Wives I ch. 18.
He climbed on his horse with what speed he might, and rode away at full gallop. Blackmore, Lorna Doone ch. 31.
b. He had lost what little faith in coercion he had ever possessed. Gooch, Hist. p. 9.
He was not a man given to much talking, but what little he did say, was generally well said.
Trollope, Barchester ch. 9. p. 62. There were few signs of the invalid about him; and what few there were disappeared under the bright pleasant influence of such a welcome as he received from all.
Gaskell, Wives H p. 153.
See also the last quotation of 1141.
1143. In dependent questions and in interrogative adjuncts with an infinitive what never has this restrictive meaning (a). As in the case of the interrogatives, we find what sort of, etc, when the kind is thought of (b). It is rare for what to be used in this meaning (c).
a. Teil me what man that was whom we saw lying dead.
Dickens, Christmas Garol st. 4. The writer, if the above be a true presentation of the new



166
Pbonouns
scheme, has little or nothing to say against it. Much will depend on how it is worked and by what men.
Times Ed. S. 22/1, '20. I have been a good deal worried to-day about the question of what luggage to take with me. Jerome.
b. "I wonder what kind of man that is," said Mr. Gatchpole, nódding towards those chimneys.
Pickthall, Larkmeadow ch. 1 p. 6.
It was easy to see, she said, what sort of a disposition she had inherited. Peard, Madame's Grand-daughter p. 41.
It was Minden and Quebec that taught him what sort of a country he belonged to, and what sort of statesman was desirable to have the guiding of it. Ker, Eighteenth Gent. p. 6.
c. His task was to show what a man ') Horatio Nelson was, and justly, for he was writing a biography, which is a study of personality, and was not building a history.
Times Lit. 19/10, 22.
1144. What is also used in dependent exclamations. It is formally distinguished from the interrogative function of what by the article before suhgular class-nouns.
Mr. and Mrs. Ambrose were far from guessing what an intimacy had sprung up between the two.
Crawford, Lonely Parish ch. 5.
When it is remembered to what an extent illustrations are borrowed from book to book, this fact alone gives distinction to the book. Times Lit. 19/1, '17.
Think,«oh, my meditative reader, what an association we have here for these comfortable prebendaries.
Trollope, Barchester ch. 4.
It is remarkable what a little thing will draw even the most regular and serious people from the deep groove of their habits. Bennett, Old W. T. II ch. 2 § 4.
1) Note the use of the article. Can the clause be exclamatory, and an instance of 1144?



Independent Relatives
157
The addition of an adjective, as in the last quotation tends to ■give what an adverbial function.
1145. Which is used as a relative pronoun ia the same meaning as the interrogative which. It occurs in dependent questions both as a noun (a), and as an adjective with a noun or with the prop-word one (b). Its use in dependent statements is exceptional (c).
a. One or other must conquer, and the future of mankind depends upon which is to be thevictor. Times W. 18/1, '18.
And once more I cannot too strongly emphasize the excellent impression made on the Australians by the behaviour and the gallantry of the Americans. It is hard to say which admires the other the more. Times W. 12/7, '18.
"I declare, I don't know which is the biggest fooi of the two," said Uncle Bat, very rudely.
Trollope, Three Clerks, p. 250.
You say they quarrelled in a pot-house? Is there any thing to show which provoked the fight? Morgan, Vance ch. 2.
A night of happy augury to Father and Son. They were looking out for the same thing; only one employed science. the other instinct; and which hit upon the right it was for time to decide. Meredith, Feverel, lst ed. reprinted Memorial ed. vol. 27 p. 84.
They even confessed to rage and pity and disgust one moment, and to joy and dreams the next, and they differed greatly as to what excited which. Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 17 p. 205.
They knew all the landmarks, and the lie of all the streets, and which were the best shops.
Bennett, Old Wives' Tale II ch. 2 § 2.
b. Trivial in fact as were the actual points of difference which severed the Roman Church from the Irish, the question to which communion Northumbria should belong was of immense moment to the after fortunes of England.
Green, Short Hist. p. 30. Accordingly, by a stroke of genius, they determined that one of them should become a solicitor and the other a



158
Pronouns
hamster, and then tossed up as to who should take to which trade. R. Haggard, Meeson ch. 15.
"(Keep it a secret) from Lizzie; most of all from Lizzie," I answered, very eagerly, knowing too well which one of my family would be hardest with me.
Blackmore, Lorna Doone ch. 30 p. 196.
c. There is an Almighty Judge and Ruler of nations who gives victory to which he will; but the victory is no more a necessary token of His favour than the chastisement of defeat.
Stubbs, Lect, Early Eng. Hist. p. 335.
Adverb Clauses 1146. Who, what, and which are also used in concessive adverb clauses opening with a simple infinitive. The distinclions in meaning between the three are the same as in noun-clauses and as in the case of the interrogative pronouns. What and which occur as nouns and as adjectives.
Deny it who may, there is a wickedly Lucretian satisfaction in idly watching. Eng. Rev. April 1915.
I always feit that, talk with whom I would, I left something unsaid which was precisely what I most wished to say.
Rutherford, Autobiogr. p. 24.
Do what it would, the empire could not abolish slavery or serfdom. Gardiner and Mullinger, Introd. p. 11.
German theologians, be their shortcomings' what they may, are men of research, not advocates'). Pilot 30/11, 1901.
He might see a reason for his friend's strange preference or bondage (call it which you please).
Stevenson, Dr. Jekyll p. 21.
Turn the matter which way you will, you come back to the all-important consideration on which we have already dwelt. Dicey, Law of the Gonst. Lect. VII.
1147. The following quotations may serve to illustrate the use of who and what as contrasted with which. See also 1120.
1) In this example be is to be interpreted as a subjnnctive; see 220.



Independent Relatives
159
Jones and I had a small bet as to who would stick out the longer. Punch 1915.
They sit up tfll one o'clock discussing who of our year is most likely to be elected president of the I. G. R. ') four years from now. Sinister Street p. 456.
Time alone can enable us to grasp the full significancè of this new Risorgimento, and help us slowly to see what seed will grow and what will not of those that it has sown.
Times W. 6/6, '13.
Local divorce being admittedly necessary, the question of what divorces should be tried on Assizes and what in the County Court is a minor question. Edinb. Rev. April 1917.
All or nearly all the politicians of those days were in the game for what they could get out of it. But they could never be sure what was the best card. ^ Times Lit. 5/2, '20.
1148. Who ia not unfrequently used after os in comparative clauses. The usage is exclusively literary.
"Really?" replied Mr. Povey, with loftiness, as who should say: "What an extraordinary thing thata reasonable creature . can have such fanciesl" Bennett, Old Wives' Tale II ch. 1 § 2.
Compound Relative Pronouns
1149. The compound pronouns whoever, whatever and whiehever are used to open all sorts of noun-clauses (a) and adverb-clauses (6). Whatever is also used in the way mentioned in 1142 (c). The addition of ever serves to emphasize the indefiniteness of the pronouns, and often helps to make the sentences concessive in meaning.
«• Whoever writes continuously will drain himself dry, unless he continues to learn at the same time.
Sir F. Palgrave, quoted Times Lit. 22/5, '19.
1) i. e. Junior Common Room.



Pronouns
Pm determined to be surprised at nothing, and will give her away with a good grace to whoever comes.
Gaskell, Wives III p. 253. Now will you please teil me at once whether whoever is hurt is likely to get over it? Cotes, Cinderella cb. 25 p. 264. Return it to whose-ever address is on it. Whatever a writer says, whatever combinations of words into sentences he uses to express an idea, will not be precisely like any other combination ever made, unless it be the stock phrase or the stock sentence.
Brewster, The Writing of English p. 12. It is evident that the Irish party has lost whatever claim it had to speak for the people of Ireland.
Times Lit. 18/10, '18. They at length agreed on a plan to settle the question. Whiehever first made a traveller take off his cloak, was to be accounted the most powerful. b. Whose-ever it is, I mean to have it. Whatever we may think of the venture, we can have no doubt of Thackeray's courage and enterprise.
Whibley, Thackeray p. 14. They were interesting and amusing, in whatever language they were told. Ker, Eng. Lit. p. 115.
Whatever criticisms may be directed against our Public Schools, it is generally admitted that most of them teach their pupils the meaning of solidarity.
Times Ed. S. 14/2, '18. . The physical suffenng on Emüy's part when absent from Haworth... became at length ao much an acknowledged fact, that whiehever was obliged to leave home, the sisters decided that Emily must remain there.
Gaskell, Life of C. Brontë ch. 8 p. 114. The main lines continue the same whiehever party') triumphs.
Pollard, Hist. of Eng. p. 128.
1) i. e. politica! party.
160



Compound Relative Pronouns
161
c. The Governor-General has been stripped of whatever little authority he retained.
Goldwin Smith, quoted Oxf. Dict.
1150. The use of the compound pronouns in dependent questions seems to be very rare., See 1157.
"I don't know whatever my uncle would say to this," he had declared '). Phillpotts, Beacon I ch. 10 p. 86.
1151. The compound pronouns are regularly used in free adjuncts.
No one can fail to have observed how a certain atmosphere pervades all hotel-life, whiehever the continent, or whatever the country. My experience of hotels is limited to three continents and twice as many countries.
The fall of Jerusalem, whatever its military importance, marks the latest stage in a singularly brilliant and successful campaign. Times W. 14/12, '17.
It is sometimes supposed, with whatever justice, that the leading defect in the spirit of Cambridge is found in a failure to honour the manner as well as the matter.
Times Lit. 30/3, '16.
1152. The compound whatever is used as an adjectiveadjunct to preceding negative nouns or pronouns.
When the ship was torpedoed there was no confusion whatever. Times W. 1,2 '18.
There was no territorial episcopate whatever.
Wakeman, Introd. p. 25.
The doctrine that a soldier is bound under all circumstances whatever*) to obey his superior öfficer would be fatal to military discipline itself. Dicey, Law of the Gonst. Lect. VII.
I did not mean by that that I had any intention whatever of giving up my office at the present time. • Times W. 21/12, '17.
1) The construction may be dialectal.
2) For the negativo meaning of all see below on Indefinite Pronouns. Krdisinoa, Hand book II. Accidence and Syntax. 2. 11



162
Pronouns
There was, indeed, much in common between the aspect and manner of the two men, though no likeness, in the strict sense, whatever. Mrs. H. Ward, Harper's Mag. May 1918.
Cedric himself knew nothing whatever about it.
Burnetf, Fauntleroy ch. 1.
1153. Literary English has relatives with -soever, viz. whosoever and whatsoever, in the same functions as the compounds with -ever.
Yet with all his distaste for 64 Carlington Road Michael could scarcely check the impulse he had to mount the steps, and, knocking at the door, inform whomsoever should open it that he had once lived in this very house.
Sinister Street p. 573.
By whomsoever majesty is beheld for the first time, there will aways be experienced a vague surprise bordering on disappointment. Brontë, Villette ch. 20.
This rule of law, which means at bottom the right of the Gourts to punish any illegal act by whomsoever committed, is of the very essence of English institutions.
Dicey, Law of Const. Lect. VIII.
The rule of feudalism in any form whatsoever was at an end.
Gonst. Essays p. 167.
(We had) nothing to drink whatsoever beyond a little keg of water. Wells, Country p. 74.
1154. In literary English we also find whoso in nounclauses. Whatso occurs both in noun- and in adverb-clauses. These forms are less frequent than those in -soever.
Whoso drank of the ale of the Green Dragon kept in his memory a place apart for it.
Meredith, Harrington ch. 11 p. 105. Despatches, sermons, — whatso goes Into their brain, comes out as prose.
Beeching, quoted Oxf. Dict. I love thee, whatso time or men may say.
Morris, quoted Oxf. Dict.



Relative Adverbs and Conjdnctions
163
Relative Adverbs and Conjunetions
t155. The adverbs when, where, why, how, which are formally related to the interrogative (and relative) pronouns, are used a3 conjunetions not only in noun- and adverbclauses, but also to connect adjective clauses with their antecedent. The words are used according to the meaning of the antecedent noun (the Urne when, the place where, the reason why, the manner how). Por the compounds of where with a preposition see 1179.
There never was a time when I feit more fit for work. No. 104 Portland Place was the house where the Duchess of Wrexe had Iived now for sixty years.
Walpole, Duchess I ch. 2 § 1. Teil me the reason why you did not want to go.
1156. When and where are also used in continuative adjective clauses. In these clauses why and how are replaced by for which reason, in which manner.
In Ovillers-la-Boisselle, where there has been continuouS hand-to-hand fighting since July 7, we captured the remaining stronghold of the enemy. III. London News, 5/8, '16.
1157. The compound adverbs with -ever, and (less often) -soeveri) are chiefly used in adverb clauses (a). They also oecur in noun-clauses (b); see 1150.
a. You may come whenever you like. I shall remember it wherever I go. Do it however you can.
6. How ever») the Society can get along with an Hon.
1) The Oxf. Dict ihstances whensoever, whereinsoever, wheresoever; also whenso and whereso. All these forms are rare and really archaic
2) On the spelling in two words, both in this and the following quotation, see 1122. —



164
Pronouns
Secretary who has an ear-trumpet I don't know.
De Morgan, Vance ch. 16. To say truth she did not know in the least how ever she was going to ask this almost strange man about a girl of doubtful character. Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 14.
1158. The chief difference between relative pronouns and conjunetions, apart from their form, is that the pronouns may be considered as parts of the clause whereas conjunetions generally serve to connect two clauses but do not form part of either.
There are three conjunetions, however, that resemble pronouns in being used in the same kind of clauses in a similar or identical manner, and which are for that reason called relative conjunetions. They are that, as, and but.
That 1159. That is the commonest relative in spoken English in adjective clauses, except those that are distinctly continuative; see Sentenee-Structure. It is never precedéd by a preposition; for examples of relative clauses with a preposition at the end, see the chapter on Word-Order.
It is usual to call that a relative pronoun when it serves to connect a noun with an attributive (adjective) clause1). But it is essentially a conjuaction, and this is the reason why it cannot take a preposition. There is no real difference in the function of that in a case like the year that I mentioned, and the year that he was bom; the actual difference in these two constructions is that in the former the year is the object of the subordinate clause, in the second it is the adverb adjunct. This' is also the reason why we could use which in the first case, not in the second; see 1132.
1) The real reason seems to be a mechanieal adoption of the terminology of other languages, where the form of the conjunctive word varies according to the gender of the noun (as in Dutch), or according to both gender and case (as in German).



Relative That
165
1160. That is very often found when the antecedent is not the name of a person. In the last two quotations the subordinate clause is rather adverbia!; see 1169.
I know a dog that would follow that scent to the world's end. He seems to have studied and mastered everything that man can know.
This gave us leisure to reflect upon all that we had gone through and all that we had escaped.
Scarcely a year passed that six or seven persons were not drowned under the very windows of the town.
Aldrich, Bruise of the Dolphin. "They would not receive Mary as their cousin," said he, "and I will go nowhere that she cannot go."
Trollope, Dr. Thorne ch. 47.
1161. That is also common after personal antecedents, especially in distinctly restrictive clauses, hence e.g. when the - antecedent is qualified by a superlative, by any or only.
Colonel Lennox was, perhaps, the first officér that played with his men.
^WïBiam Shakespeare is the greatest poet that England, and perhaps the world, ever saw.
Any man that knows three words of Greek could settle that point.
He is the only member of the family that is to be trusted.
They give prizes to the boys that dress best and have the best manners. Sweet, Spoken Engl. p. 94.
Tatham, that the doctor thinks such a genius, does all his constering ») from cribs. Shaw, Gashell Byron's Profession.
1162. TPiat is generally used after personal antecedents when they stand to the adjective clause in the relation of nominal predicates. In this case the alternative pronoun is not who but which (1133).
1) i. e. construing.



166
Pronouns
He wrote in 1880 when Flaubert had not yet become the classic that he is to day. Times Lit. 27/1, 16.
For the reception of the unknown daughter-in-Iaw that was to be. Gaskell, Wives I ch. 11.
Miss Clements (that was l). Pett Ridge, Garland.
1163. That is also the usual word when neither who nor which can be used, because the antecedent denotes both persons and things.
The knowledge of our own history is our memory, and so the recorded history of a nation is the memory of a nation: woe to the country and people that forget it.
Stubbs, Lectures Early Eng. Hist. p. 1.
1164. That is preferred for reasons of euphony, when the antecedent ends in [u] so that who would sound strange, or when it ends in [its] so that which would be out of place (a). But exceptions occur (6). Conversely that would hardly be used now in the rare 'case that the antecedent is that (e).
a. Who that has ever known the passion of the writer and the student can read without tears the record of his last months? Mrs, H. Ward, Harper's Mag. May 1918.
Then occured a hitch that might have been prevented by good management.
b. Among these passengers who came on board were two who excited my curiosity. Haggard, Solomon's Mines ch. 1.
c. That which promised happiness when we were one in heart, is fraught with misery now that we are two.
Dickens, Christmas Carol st. II. Compare the following quotations where the relative who is separated from its antecedent.
But who then who wore a white waistcoat had a word of compassion for the Luddites? Times Lit. 9/10, 16.
It would be extremely interesting if we could always find out who it was who made them.,
Pearsall Smith, Eng. Lang. p. 109.
1) viz. before her marriage.



Relative That
167
1165. That is also used in apparent adjective clauses when a noun or pronoun, whether denoting a person or notf is emphasized by it is, etc.
It is not everybody that cares for early StafTordshire pottery.
Times Lit. 18/11, 15. It is such follies that make history something better than a Newgate Galendar of the crimes of common sense.
Davis, Med. Europe p. 211. Who was it that walked at the head of the procession?
On the interpretation of these sentences and the character of that, see Sentence-Structure.
1166. That is used, like who and which, when the antecedent noun is an adjunct or object to a non-finite verb (see 1137).
It is a point that we must exert our imaginations a little to understand. Murray, Engl. Lit. and the Classics, p. 10.
(These facts) perhaps help us to understand a phenomenon that we have all so keen an interest both in understanding and in modifying. Morley, Compromise p. 22.
Uterary English H67. In spoken English that is always unstressed, though not necessarily [fot], as is shown by the following passage in Sweefs Primer of Spoken English (p. 66):
[Se dzoifl sepraiz, Se wom ïmbreis, Se tiez, en Sï eksploneisanz Saet foloud, en Sa rïpruwfs].
Por this reason who and which are generally used when the relative is separated from its antecedent by a longer group of words, or when it is followed by a pause (a). But in literary English we also find that before a clear pause (o).
a. Nobody could be said to understand the heath who had not been there at such a time.
Hardy, Return of the Native I ch. 1.
Enemy columns which, after violent artillery preparation, attempted to launch an offensive. Times W. 2/2, '17.



168
Pronouns
b. Dolores had learnt to smile with youthful cynicism at a thing that, but a short while past, would have evoked tears.
Harding, Oranges and Lemons p. H4f. There is no Victorian writer before him to whom he even suggests a comparison, technically considered, except perhaps De Quincèy; who also employed the long rich rolling sentence that, like a rocket, bursts into stars at the end.
Chestertón, Victorian Age, p. 65.
1168. To the rule that we do not use that in continuative clauses, i.e. in clauses that are distinctly co-ordinate in meaning, there are practically no exceptions in spoken English (in which this kind of sentence is not common), and even in literary English writers seldom deviate from it. The following quotations may illustrate this occasional use of that for who, which, although in some cases it may be doubtful if the sentence is really continuative.
He was a standing example of the lessons of Maxims for Men, a very curious book, that fetches a rare price now wherever a copy is put up for auction.
• Meredith, Amazing Marriage ch. 1 p. 7.
My candle was a little tongue of light in its vastness, that failed to pierce the opposite end of the room.
Wells, Country p. 236.
He had a pale, large, and cruel face, and grey eyes that had become sinister since the disaster which had overlaken him. Hichens, Ambition ch. 7 p. 71.
He led us to a stream, crossed by a simple plank with a handrail, on which some chüdren had put a trap, baited with nut for the poor squirrels, that love to run chattering across the rail from wood to wood. Benson, Thread of Gold.
A faint, delicate colour, and a soft glow in her dark eyes that only wanted a touch of gentleness, to make them irresistible. Garvice, Staunch as a Woman.
Mr. Utterson the lawyer was a man of rugged countenance, that was never lighted by a smile.
Stevenson, Dr. Jekyll p. 1.



Relative That
169
1169. Literary English oecasionally uses which for that when the antecedent containB the names of both persons and things.
They seldom or never lift their voices against persons or institutions which are supposed to be powerful. Academy.
1170. We also find which when the antecedent is the name of a person that is denoted by an abstract noun, like personality, charaeter. But compare the last example of 1126a.
Let her escape unmangled (viz. from the scandal incident to a divorce), it will pass in the record that she did once publicly run, and some old dogs will persist in thinking her cunninger than the virtuous, which never put themselves in such positions, but ply the distaff at home.
Meredith, Diana of the Crossways.
These "memoires" are an interesting self-revelation of a personality which played a great part in literature for nearly half a century.
As. 1171. At is used in adjective clauses when the antecedent noun is or contains same (a) or such (6). See 1410 and 1930.
a. Every great writer feels and loves the feeling that he is one of a great company who have lived in all lands and in all ages, that he has to speak of the same human life as his masters spoke of. Times Lit. 23/9, '15.
It would be beating the wind to criticize the economics of the Middle Ages if we did not see in operation exactly the same error as influenced the minds of men then.
Times Ed. S. 4/1, '16.
b. That night, such a frost ensued as we had never dreamed.
Blackmore, Lorna Doone ch. 42, p. 288. Michael and Alan did not talk much; indeed, such conversation as took place during the meal came from the landlady.
Sinister Street p. 775. He stared before him with an expression of such unutterable nothingness as by sheer nebulosity acquired a sinister and menacing force. Sylvia and Michael p. 261.



170
Pronouns
1172. When a noun is qualified by same we sometimes find a clause introduced by a relative pronoun1). For sueh who see 1205.
He read the Sonnets of Petrarca, and he learnt what is meant by "form" in poetry; but Petrarca never had the same power over him which Dante possessed.
Stopford Brooke, Primer p. 43.
A question of great speculative interest is whether English law will ultimately prevail in India to the same extent that Roman law did in the later Empire. Pilot 15/3. 1902.
He liked and disliked pretty nearly the same things that she did. Gaskell, North and South ch. 1.
She asked the same sort of delightfully foolish questions about Oxford that she used to ask about school.
Sinister Street p. 732.
1173. As is also used in clauses referring to the preceding (a) or a following (b) sentence or clause, and being coordinate in their meaning. See 1138 on the coordinate relative clauses.
a- I will first introducé our father, as seems suitable.
Cotes, Cinderella ch. 1 p. 5. Molly said nothing, as became her age and position.
Gaskell, Wives I ch, 2 p. 22. b. Although, as has been said, she affected extreme poverty, she was known to be rich. , Peard, Madame p. 28.
Whether, as is asserted, he beat time with his foot, I cannot say. Eliot, Essays p. 122.
Note that there is no provisional it when the headclause cah be regarded as the subject of the as-clause: as serves as
1) According to Dr. Murray (Oxf. Dict. s. v. as, 23) Same ...as usually expresses identity of kind, same... that absolute identity (this applies to clauses only, not to adjuncts: the same books as mine). The instance given; Se 'uses the same books as you do and He usest he same books that you do is, no doubt, ingenious enough. It is to be feared, however, that English writers (not to mention speakers) find it difflcult to reach this Standard of ingenuity: compare e.g. the second quotation of 1117a and the first of 1172.



Relative As
171
a subject just like a relative pronoun. The use of as in these clauses, as in those discussed in the following section is exactly parallel to the use of so in principal sentences (1028 ff.).
'■ ]P4. As is also used in clauses referring to the verbal (o) or nomina! (b) predicate of a preceding sentence. In the case of a verbal predicate we may find to do in the as-clause. Compare the use of so.
a. Here mother came to my rescue, as she always loved to do. Blackmore, Lorna Doone ch. 30 p. 199.
He had no strong sympathy with Mr. Crawley, as had others. Trollope, Last Chronicle ch. 47.
b. All the Dominions except Australia were represented, as was India. Times W. 4/1, '18.
I saw that his face and head were wet with water, as were mine. Hope, Zenda ch. 4.
My ideas of the duties I was to perform were very vague, as were also my ideas of Ireland generally.
Trollope, Autobiogr, ch. 4 (I, 81).
We are not particularly concerned, as Livy was, to choose our documents from illustrious exemplars.
Times Lit. 16/3, 22.
But in this matter the man of culture is just like the vulgar herd, as he would call them. Times Lit. 15/6, '16.
1175. An interesting case of the preceding use of as is that in clauses after a present participle with the auxiliary to do (a) and after a past participle or adjective with a copula (b). See 556.
a. The erop is of immense value, forming as it does the staple export of the southern states. Times, 1915.
A note on the event, from which a passage may be borrowed, giving as it does a lively idea of the great poet-novelist at home- Jerrold, Meredith p. 34.
b. The illuminating generaliaations of Maitland, based as



172
Pkonouns
they were upon the soundest scholarship and the most diligent investigation, inspired other students.
Hearnshaw, Municipal Records p. 12. To us, familiar as we are with political organisations extending over enormous territories, it is a mere matter of political convenience. Gardiner and Mullinger, Introd. p. 6.
1176. When as is used in concessive clauses it is hardly feit to be different from other conjunetions, except in its position. Sketch as it is, the book is no mere compilation.
Athenaeum.
Thus the chapters on art, excellent as they are,' seem out of place. Times Lit. 15 6, '16.
But stern as his rule was, it gave peace to the land.
Green, Short Hist. p. 88.
Bat 1177. But (occasionally but what) is used to introducé negativo clauses referring to an antecedent that is negativo; it generally forms the subject of the clause in which it occurs, as well as of the subordinate clause.
Not a paper reaches us from Bussia but contains an account of some new educational enterprise. Times Ed. S. 29/5, '19.
Few readers but will be astonished to find that the field should be so rich and wide. Times Lit. 25/1, '18.
Not a mood of his but what found a ready sympathiser in Margaret; not a wish of his that she did not strive to forecast, and to fulfil. Gaskell, North and South ch. 41 p. 364.
Not a soul in the auditorium or on the stage but what lived consummately during those minutes.
Bennett, Leonora ch. 6. There are few thinking people but realize the great war as the death-agony of an old order, the birth-travail of a new.
Times Lit. 10/9, 15. Colburn... was too clever to need a magazine; not a living publisher but would have to yield to him in the gentle art of puffing. ib. 20/4, 17.
1178. When the antecedent is not the subject of the



Relative Adverbs
173
subordinate clause, the subject must, naturally, be expressed (a). Sometimes this is also done even though the antecedent is the subject (6).
a. Scarcely a week passes but the association is consulted by private landowners or by public authorities.
b. There was never a Samson so strong but he met his Delilah. Hobbes, Emotions I, ch. 4.
Literary English 1179. In literary English compounds of where with a preposition (or adverb) are used conjunctively in adjective clauses. Literary English also has the adverbs whither and whence to introducé adjective clauses. See 1053, 1123 and 1213.
Tess was in a dream wherein familiar objects appeared. as having light and shade and position, but no particular outline.
Hardy, Tess.
... that slight figure (whereof he will be able to studv the outward and visible presence in some excellent portraits and in many caricatures)... Mrs. H. Ward, Harper's Mag. May 1918.
... the general current of public opinion, the trend whereof has been more or less anti-clerical.
Dicey, Law and Public Opinion p. 40.
A bureau with an immense number of pigeonholes, whereat he had been obviously seated.
Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 34 p. 430.
The unappropriated land, the land of the nation, the folkland, forms a great fund whereout the king, with the consent of the wise, can reward his faithful followers.
Maitland, Const. Hist. p. 57.
We found ourselves at the top of a hill whence we could oversee the whole surrounding country.
Demonstrative Pronouns
Forms 1180. The demonstrative pronouns are: Singular Plural
Sis this Sis these
o'set that Souz those



174
Pronouns
Use 1181. These pronouns are used in three ways:
1. as deictic pronouns, i. e. to point out, to point to something in space or time.
2. as antecedent (determinative) pronouns. .
3. as referring prbnonns; they are either anticipatory pronouns i.e. referring tol what follows, or anaphoric pronouns i. e. referring to what precedes.
The use of the demonstratives is parallel to that of the personaP pronouns of the third person. The chief difference is that the demonstratives are characteristically deictic, also when used as referring pronouns; another difference is that the personal pronouns are never used as adjectives. See 996 ff.
Deletie 1182. When use deictically the pronouns may be Use used as adjectives to point to persons and things (a). When used as nouns this and that are neuter, pointing to things only; the plurals these and those, when not referring to a preceding noun, are used to point out persons only (b).
a. Who is that boy?
What is the price of this book?
We have not seen anything of him this week.
Success now leant this way, now that.
Goodspeed, Hist. p. 177.
The special value that these thousand and odd pages possess arises from the ünrivalled first-hand knowledge that the writer has of the question involved. Athen. 24/10, 1908.
b. Who. are those passing? — Those are our neighbours, Smith and Mrs. Smith.
1183. This (these) refer to what is thought of as near in space or time. When referring to time they express connection with the present. That (those) are used to point to what is thought of as further away in space, or separated from the present time '). We may say that this is deictic
1) This difference between this and that is also shown by the tenses of the verb.



Demonstrative Pronouns
175
from the standpoint of the speaker (lst person), that from the standpoint of the second or third person. They are used indefinitely in the combination this or that.
This reader or that may disagree with Mr. Boyd on this point or that. Times Lit. 19/1, '17.
1184. The neuter this and that can be used to point to persons. The sentence may serve to identify (a), like those with it (see 945), but also to give information about a person (5). In both cases the pronoun is always the subject of a nóminal sentence.
a. The young man stepped forward with a pleasant smile. "This," said he, "is Colonel Sapt, and I am called Fritz von Tarlenheim..." Hope, Zenda ch. 3.
"Who is thatV' he whispered to Mark, who sat beside him. 'That's Stride, our resident doctor."
Vachell, Brothers I, p. 253.
b. "Betty," said he, "we've dropped two guineas. See if you can find them." Betty went down on her hands and knees, and found the one guinea, which had rolled under the fender.
"That's a very good girl, Betty," said John Scott, pocketing the coin, "and when you find the other you can keep it for your trouble." Russell, Collections I, 32.
This is a very interesting man.
1185. This and that are also used to express notoriety or contempt, both adjectively (a) and substantively (b).
a. "And who is this Clarissa Vine?" Michael indignantly demanded. Sinister Street p. 609.
What do you think of this wireless telegraphy? Oxf. Dict.
They say at Burkitt's he's one of these arlistic chaps—got an idea of improving English architecture.
Galsworthy, Man of Property ch. 1.
"Wasn't that Mr. Yardley in the shop to-night?" began Constance. Bennett, Old Wives' Tale n ch. 1 § 2.



176
Pronouns
"No man," wrote that authoritative but autocratie biographer, John Forster, "ever put so much of himself into his books as Goldsmith." Gamb. Hist. Eng. Lit. X.
With that he blew out his candle, put on a great coat, and set forth in the direction of Cavendish Square, that citadel of medicine, wherè his friend, the great Dr. Lanyon, had his house and received his crowding patients.
Stevenson, Dr. Jekyll p. 17. It's that wife of his, of course.
Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 2. b. "Would you like to marry Malcolm?" I askëd. "Fancy being owned by that! Fancy seeing it every day!"
El. Glyn, Vicissitudes of Evangeline, p. 127.
When the singular this or that is used as a noun to point to a person in this way, its gender is neuter; see 1184 and 952.
1186. They are often used humorously, as in those daughters of'yours (Bennett, Leonora ch. 7). See 935, and 1095.
1187. The difference between this and that in the two preceding sectiöns is, of course, not a question of place or time, but subjective: this is used when the speaker feels it as something concerning him more intimately; that refers to what he feels as more distant, hence it may also express contempt (1185).
1188. Occasionally a noun is preceded by a demonstrative and a possessive pronoun, or by a demonstrative pronoun and the definite article. In these cases the possessive and the definite article form a kind of apposition to the demonstrative.
Major Roberts has made a tactical mistake in this, his latest book. Times Lit. 18/10, '18.
Even in this the day of battle many eyes are turned towards the future. Times Lit. 4/5, '16
That and those as 1189. That and those are also used as antecedent pronouns antecedent pronouns, both as nouns (cc)



Demc-nstbative Peonoüus
177
and as adjectives (b). The use of the' antecedent that as a noun-pronoun is chiefly literary. Compare 1025.
a. That which promised happiness when we were one in heart, is fraught with misery now that we are two.
Dickens, Christmas Carol st. 2. Ideals may fade but the memory of those who realise them are the world's abiding possession. Davis, Med. Europe p. 212.
But on those of us who are not soldiers the influence of the war broods like the memory of a nightmare.
Times Lit. 3/2, '16. In his boyhood John Galt had that reflective tendency which makes the quiet sedentary youth an uneasy object to those around him.
Macdonald in Preface to John Galt's Annals p. VIII. That which had once a serious purpose and marked an ad vance in thought or art, tends to degenerate in tone or to , survive mainly as a source of harmiess amusement.
Dobbs, Education p. 21.
b. It is well-known that the secondary schools of London fall easily into three great groups. There are, first of all, those schools that carry on their work quite independently of the Education Gommittee. Times Ed. S. 4/4, '16.
1190. These antecedent pronouns are also used in an indefinite meaning.
Alaric had, as he (i. e. Norman) thought, answered his love by treachery; and there was that in Norman's heart which would not allow him to forgive one who had been a traitor to him Trollope, Three Glerks, p. 166.
Her factsimpressed him—only her timorous deductions made him scoff. Yet there was that in her that struck his tongue to gentleness. Phillpotts, Forest on the Hill ch. 4.
There are those who think the war a mere silly blunder on both sides. Times Lit. 6/1, '16.
1) a eomparison of this quotation with the first of 1189 will bring out the difference: that in 1189 refers to what is thought of as a general statement, that in 1190 to something indefinite.
Kruisinoa, Handbook II. Accidence and Syntax. 2 12



178
Peonodns
There are some who always demand the last ounce of flesh; there are always those who return by the last possible train. Waugh, Loom of Youth I ch. 1.
Referring Pronouns 1191. The referring pronouns this and that are used as neuter nouns; they may also be used adjectively. The plurals these and those can be used as nouns or as adjectives.
1192. This and these are either anticipatory (a) or anaphoric (b).
a. I speak no word of boast, but this I say: A private loss here founds a nation's peace.
M. Arnold, Merope. Under the Inscription are these words in Greek letters, Kairos ho Pandamator.
We will confine ourselves to saying this, that the criticism which he has put forward is one which cannot be neglected.
Times Lit. 15/1, '20.
b. His persuasiveness was amazing, and this is a rare quality in men of action. Times Lit. 4/11, '15.
Inglesant promised him to ride to Oxford, and see the Jesuit again. This he did the next day.
•Shorthouse, Inglesant ch. 10.
The advisers of the sovereign are responsible for his political acts; I must now teil you who these are.
The same view is expressed with greater force in the five sermons at the end. These, to our thinking, are the most valuable part of the volume. Athen. 15/2, 1908.
1193. That and those are only used anaphorically.
He has promised to do it but that does not mean that he will do it.
I only once heard Thackeray allude to his works, and that in a serio-comic spirit, which amused both him and us.
Hole, Memories p. 84.
1194. The difference between anaphoric this (these) and anaphoric that (those) is the result of their deictic function:



Demonstrative Pronouns
179
this refers to what is in the foreground of the speaker's thoughts, often because it has just been mentioned, that to what is further back in his thoughts.
Gounod's "Dites, la jeune belle" will be remembered long after Franck's "La Procession" is forgotten, although this is better made than that. Times Lit. 5/8, '20.
1195. The neuter this and that can be used anaphorically as nouns to refer to persons mentioned before, but only to identify them (o); compare it in 945.
This anaphoric use should not be identified with the deictic use discussed in 1184: in that case the sentence may be descriptive as well as identifying.
Anaphoric this and that can also be used in the same affective function as deictic this and that (b); see 1185. Por examples of anaphoric that in appended subjects, see SehtenceStructure.
a. "Hullo! more signs of civilization! What a gorgeous commercial traveller!" — "Do you mean the man that just passed us in the pony-trap?" — "Yes, that man with the white hat and the velvet coat and the scarlet tie." — "That isn't a commercial traveller; it's our doctor; he's quite a gentleman, though you wouldn't think so to look at him." — "Is he an M. D.?" — "Oh no, he is only an M. R. C. S."
Sweet, Spoken English, p. 72.
b. The solemn butler knew and welcomed him; he was subjected to no stage of delay, but ushered direct from the door to the dining-room, where Dr. Lanyon sat alone over his wine. This was a hearty, healthy, dapper, red-faced gentleman, with a shock of hair prematurely white, etc.
Stevenson, Dr. Jekyll p. 17.
1196. This is sometimes used to summarize the preceding part of a sentence.
That Cyril's attitude to his mother was marked by a certain behevolent negligence—this Matthew knew.
Bennett, Old W. Tale IV ch. 1 § 3.



180
Pronouns
Human pride and envy, human ambition and emulation, the desire to shine in the world — and to rise to a higher stalus — these... are the main causes of the war.
The New Age (Poutsma p. 898).
1197. When there are two things to refer to, it is easy enough to account for the use of this (these) and that (those). The difference is not so clearly marked, naturally, when there is onè. In that case the choice between this and that depends upon the feeling of the speaker. If he wants a pronoun to enable him to show that he continues the thread of his thought he uses this; if he resumés the thread of his own thought or takes up the thought of another he uses that.
When used adjectively, this (these) is often almost equivalent to the definite article; when used as a noun, to a personal pronoun. Sometimes this (these) is used in the first reference, because the idea is still fresh in the speaker's mind, and the idea is referred to a second time by the personal pronoun or definite article; but the strong-stressed personal pronoun may also be used first, as in the last quotation.
We shall never have too many guns. These are things that cannot be created in a day, and they are things that wear out. Times W. 23/2, '17.
There appear to be no Negritos, or, in other words, Pygmies, in Borneo, though these are found in the Malay Peninsula, the Philippines, and elsewhere in this region.
Athenaeum 28/12, '12.
There were a large number of books containing marginal notes by Mr. Lang, though I doubt if these will be of much use to any one, as Mr. Lang's calligraphy was execrable. Everyman.
It has been clearly shown that the metrical structure of all plays known to be early in date differs profoundly from that of all plays known to be late; while every intermediate stage between this early and this late verse is also found.
Seccombe and Allen, Age of Shakespeare II 112.
He meant no deceit, and yet he had told himself within the



Demonstrative Pronouns
181
last hour that he should never see another summer. He could not teil even his daughter that after such a life as this, after more than fifty years spent in the ministration of his darling cathedral, it specially behoved him to die, — as he had lived, — at Barchester. He could not say this to his eldest daughter; but had his Eleanor been at home, he could have said it to her.
Trollope, Last Ghronicle ch. 49. Delays there were, but they were, as a rule, of short duration.
Everyman, 24/12, '12. Such words are called 'learned', and the distinction between them and 'popular' words is of great importance to a right understanding of linguistic process.
Greenough and Kittredge, Words and their Ways, p. 19. The result of all this is that a book like Mr. Trevelyan's has quite a different part to play from that played by his Garibaldi books or by his Grey and Bright. In them he was an explorer, bringing us new knowledge; in this he is a mapmaker, arranging and clarifying what we already possessed.
Times Lit. 25/5, 22.
1198. The result of the resumptive character of anaphoric that (mentioned in 1197) is that it is frequently found predicatively to refer to a preceding sentence, whether of the same speaker or of 'another. See 1046 ff. on so, it and that.
They would like the present to be like the past; but the present, if it is alive, never can be that. Times Lit. 3/6, '15.
"They are a rough, heathenish set of fellows, thesë Milton men of yours."
"They are that," replied Mr. Thornton.
Gaskell, North and South ch. 15.
1199. We always find anaphoric that (not this) when there is a prepositional adjunct or a clause qualifying the pronoun1).
1) Poutsma p. 917 quotes trom Trollope, Framley Parsonage, ch. 5: She had other things to vex her, besides this about Mr. Roberts. Note, however, that this has a deictic function here, which is absent in the case of that in all the examples quoted in this section.



182
Pronouns
In the case of adjuncts with of there is a second construction if the noun denotes a person, viz. the genitive; see 888. The genitive is necessary when the headword follows in the sentence, for that is only used to refer back; thus that would not be possible in the third and fourth examples of 888. On the other hand that is necessary (or the one) when the word is not a personal name, and also when a group of nouns follows (as in the second quotation in this section) or when it is accompanied by an apposition (see the third quotation), or by a clause (last quotation). This use of the demonstratives and the construction with the anaphoric prop-word one are compared in 1371.
Few poets have left behind them material for their biographies so copious as we possess for that of Keats.
Times Lit. 30/H, '17. Dr. Ward's name may be added to those of Lord Bryce, Sir John Seeley, Mr. Fisher, Mr. Syme, and other distinguished writers on German history and German literature.
Times Lit. 21/12, '17. The oldest English laws that have come down to us are those of Ethelbert, King of Kent. Maitland, Gonst. Hist. p. 1.
Earth holds no deeper loneliness than that upon a mountain's summit. Phillpotts, Beacon I ch. 1.
Our public schools are infinitely better than those of Locke's day. Athen. 21/9, '12.
He certainly pictured himself in the midst of a society more intellectually varied than that in which he found himself.
Sinister Street p. 541. There was no mirror, at that date, in my room; that which stands beside me as I write, was brought there later on.
Stevenson, Dr. Jekyll p. 110.
Use of one 1200. Both the demonstrative and the anaphoric this (these) and that (those) are occasionally used with the prop-word one(s).
So you can put on decent boots to morrow. Those ones won't be wanted any more. Birmingham, Advent, of Dr. Whitly.



Demonstrative Pronouns
183
Few biographies have had a greater vogue than this one,
Lit. World 3/12, '14. But the story of Wittenberg happens to be that one of which the story is complete in its detail. Times Lit. 8/6, '16.
1201. This one and that one may also be used to refer to persons. They are deictic rather than anaphoric in the following quotations. iwrfl);
Among the masters of research there is this one who was a master of the art of letters, and who offered all his art to the smaller audience. Times Lit. 16/12, '20.
It seems a pity to draw such a depressing picture of work in a big London girl's school, for there can be few', if any, headmistresses as callous to her teachers as this one.
Times Lit. 9/12, '15.
I would wager there's not a better landlord nor a better fellow in all his class than this one.
Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 25.
1202. To refer back to each of two persons this one and that one are less usual than the purely anaphoric the latter and the former. We also find this last.
At the Park gates they found Miles and Virginie. The latter joined the other servants in the road, and the two little brothers walked on together.
Montgomery, Misunderstood ch. 2. Maud had walked to Wattleborough, where she would meet Dora on the latter's return from her teaching.
Gissing, New Grub Street ch. 2. Vives was consulted by the very founders of the study of British archaeology, the scholars John Twyne and Nicholas Wotton, the former one of Vives's students at Oxford, the latter a student under him at Louvain. Times Lit. 25/11,'20.
Mr. En field and the lawyer were on the other side of the by-street; but when they came abreast of the entry, the . former lifted up his cane and pointed.
Stevenson, Dr. Jekyll p. 6.



184
Pronouns
This much, etc. 1203. The addition of much to the neuter pronouns gives them a connotation of limitation, producing the anticipatory this much (a) and the anaphoric that much (b). The combinations as much, so much are used anaphorically in the same sense (c). Similarly we find this far as an adverb adjunct (d).
a. But this much is certain that his efforts to induce Churchmen to work with him were increased rather than diminished. Shorthouse, Inglesant ch..6.
It is true that Ruskin had this much justification for his attitude that the economists of his day were "a little arrogant."
Times Lit. 15/6, '16.
b. You must know that he isn't free from creditors, MollyYou can't have been one of the family, like a child of the house almost, without knowing that much.
Gaskell, Wives I ch. 8. She admitted that much in some moods; but not even that much always. Phillpotts, Beacon I ch. 9.
c. The old woman apparently anticipated as much.
Black, Princess of Thule (Oxf. Dict.) I thought as much. Oxf. Dict.
Both are anxious that the world should be priest-governed; though they have probably never confessed so much, even • to themselves. Trollope, Barchester Towers ch. 4.
d. This far Henry VUL proceeded in the delicate and dangerous task. Wakeman, Introd. p. 255.
Such 1204. In some of its functions such resembles the demonstrative pronouns.
As an adjective it may express of that quality. The reference may be to what has preceded (a), but also to what follows (6). In the latter case there is a clause with as or with that.
a. These were the words of his text, and with such a subject in such a place, it may be supposed that such a preacher would be listened to by such an audience.
Trollope, Barchester ch. 6.



Demonstrative Pronouns
185
b. * The weather was such that we did not go out. He had borne himself with such gallantry as to attract the attention of his superior officers. Oxf. Dict.
Such books as these are useful.
1205. Such is also used to express that the quantity or number is restricted. See 1203 on this much and that much. Note also that all singular nouns in this case are used without an article.
Such criticism as was heard turned almost exclusively upon points of detail. Times W. 18/1, '18.
I have not many, but I will send you such as I have.
It seems to have cooled the ardour of such of the Bishops as at first tended to favour Sinn Fein as a means of smashing the Irish Party. Times Lit. 18/10, '18.
Such only who have been in parishes that have been for generations squireless, and also in those where a resident family has been planted for centuries, can appreciate the difference in general tone among the people.
Baring-Gould, Old Country life ch. 1.
The absence of the article is, of course, due to the pronominal character of such.
1206. Such is used to refer to a preceding argument and often serves to sum it up. In this oase it may retain its meaning of that quality (a), but it is also used when it is a simple anaphoric pronoun like that (b).
a. Such is the constitution of the inhabitants of this dear Island of Britain, so falsely accused by the great Napoleon of being a nation of shopkeepers. Meredith, Harrington ch. 2.
b. Blanche stood looking at the two officers; for such they were. Buchanan, That Winter Night eh. 4y
Such, then, were some of the channels in which the intense mental and physlcal energy of Dickens found a congenial outlet in these busy years. Ward, Dickens ch. 4.
1207. Such meaning 'of that quality, or kind', may be preceded by an indefinite pronoun.



186
Pbonopns
I had need of some such occupation to keep me awake.
Hope, Emigrant Boy l). If there were any better people in the island (as I really hope there may have been, although the story tells nothing about any such) they staid quietly at home.
Hawthorne, Wonder Book p. 33. There is no room for entertaining any such question.
John Stuart Mill, Liberty»). There is no such thing as a dumb poet or a handless painter. Swinburne').
1208. The combination with none has produced the compound [nonsAti] nonsuch, meaning 'an unrivalled thing', or 'a person who has no equal.'
As for your Prince,... he's not a nonsuch *).
1209. Such is also used to avoid the mention of a specific term (a); often with repetition: such and such (b).
a. This diploma is to certify that A. B.... attended a prescibed course of lectures... and (on such a date) satisfied... thé examiners 3).
b. Lord and Lady Blank, of Suchandsuch Castle.
Thackeray, Newcomes, ch. 45'). Number so-and-so in such-and-such a street.
Trollope, La Beata I, I. 2 *).
1210. Such may he combined with the propword one (anaphoric or independent), producing such a one, occasionally such an one.
A Jacobin is one who would have his single opinion govern the world... Such a one is Mr. Southey. Hazlitt3).
He was merely a royalist, and such an one as may be bred and reared out of the middle class. Swinburne3).
They said that neighbour such-a-one was a prisoner.
Ht. Martineau *).
1) EUinger p. 54 f. 2) Oxf. Dict. 3) Oxf. Dict s.v. such.



Demonstrative Adverbs
187
Yon, Yonder 1211. In literary English the demonstrative yon [jon] and yonder [jonder] are used as adjective-pronouns. They express what is further away than that; they may be said to be demonstratives of the third person *).
To proclaim that yon ribs of beef and yonder ruddy Britons have met, is to furnish matter for an hour's comfortable meditation. Meredith, Harrington ch. 12.
'Tis enough to make half Yonder zodiac laugh When rulers begin to allude To their lack of ambition, And strong opposition To all but general good!
Hardy, Dynasts VI, vi p. 208.
Demonstrative Adverbs
1212. The adverbs here, there, and thus are connected with the demonstrative pronouns in form and meaning. They do not call for special comment.
The adverb so is closely related to the demonstrative pronouns and to such (so good a man). • lts predicative use has been discussed in 1028 ff. See also 1203c.
Literary English 1213. In literary English we find compounds of here and there with prepositions to form adverbs: hereby, herefrom, etc. They are not used in spoken English. See 1053, 1123 and 1179.
Much misconception would have been thereby avoided.
Times W. 9/11, '17. Felix noted on the hall table one afternoon a letter in her handwriting, addressed to a Worcester newspaper, and remarked thereafter that she began to receive this journal daily. Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 34.
1) In Northern English dialects yon is the demonstrative of the second as well as of the third person: in other words it is equivalent of Standard English that.



188
Pronouns
His answer to the frequent suggestion that the Grand Fleet, or some portion thereof, should have attempted to tackle the German forces. Times W. 9/H, '17.
And therein, to crown the work of the builder, .Peter was bom. Wells, Joan and Peter ch. I, § 2 p. 7.
The Definite Article .
1214. The definite article has three forms: 1. [Se] before non-syllabic sounds: [co msen] the man; [Se histerï] the history1);
2. [Si] before syllabie sounds:
[Si ould msen] the old man; [oï aaer] the hour;
3. [Ö'i] when strongly stressed: He is the [Si] man you want. The definite article is the [Si].
1215. The definite article is spelt the. But the article is not indicated in writing before Boman or Arabic numbers used to denote ordinal numbers, when following the word they qualify.
James H. (or James II) = James the Second. Chapter 10 = Chapter the tenth (or the tenth Chapter, or Chapter ten).
October 15 (or 15th), 1910 = October the fifteenth, nineteen hundred and ten (occasionally October fifteenth etc).
Compare
the 10"1 (or lOth) Chapter.
the 15'h (or 15th) of October, 1910.
Use 1216. The use of the definite article, and still more its absence, is often a matter of tradition depending upon
1) Before unstressed h the usual form is [Öo]; but [Bï] is also heard before the same words (with loss of /()• Thus Sweet, Primer of Spoken English, p. 82. [ÖTs houtel]; p. 84 [Bï öutel]. See 1240.



The Deictic Article
189
the systems of giammar in older periode of English. Ih the following sections an account will be given of the cases in which the use of the article may be considered as part of the system of present-day English.
1217. The definite article is used:
1. as a deictic pronoun.
2. as an anaphoric pronoun.
3. as a classifying pronoun.
4. as an adverb.
Sometimes the definite article is closely related in function to the demonstrative pronouns; sometimes its function is similar to that of the possessive pronouns.
The use of the before comparatives and superlatives is so little related to its other uses, qualifying, as it does, adjectives and adverbs and not nouns, that we might very properly class it as an adverb1); in this respect, too, the article, in spite of its different name, resembles the pronouns.
Deictic the
1218. The article is used deictically, i. e. to point out, when reference is made to a single person or case or to a definite group of persons or things. It differs from deictic this and that by not referring to either the first or the third person. See 1183.
It was Saturday; she had left Paris on the Thursday.
Bennet, Old W. Tale IV ch. 2 § 3.
Mrs. P., however, was at the moment inaccessible to remonstrance. Wharton, House of Mirth.
As far as there can be said to have been any leader at the beginning of the Oxford movement, was he the man *).
■1) That the in this function represents an instrumental case of the (demonstrative) pronouns is, naturally, of no importance for its interpretation in Modern English.
3) Perhaps the article before man is anaphoric rather than deictic.



190
Pronouns
It will be just the thing for them at the moment.
Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 7. The next step to be undertaken was the revival of discipline. No sooner had the Church finally emerged from the struggle with the Danes, than she addressed herself seriously 'to the question '). Wakeman, Introd. p. 64.
1219. The deictic function is also clear in appositions to proper names expressing the rank or office or giving further information. The article often suggests personal interest. See 1289 on the absence of the article in the appositions.
It is officially announced that Mr. Stanley Baldwin, the Unionist member for Bewdley, has been appointed a Junior Lord of the Treasury. Times W. 2/2, '17.
On the 8th inst. the Education Bill received the Royal Assent. The first thought which will occur to those versed in Parliamentary practice, if not to the general public, will be to congrattulate Mr. Fisher, the President of the Board of Education and the principal author of the Act. ib. 16/8,'18.
Alexandra College, the pioneer amongst women's colleges, founded a year before Girton, is well known externally to Dubliners, Times Ed. S. 2/11, '16.
1220. Proper names preceded by an adjective (or an attributive noun) are often used with the article.
So, too, the good Arbuthnot cherished the friendship of Swift. Whibley, Thackeray.
The picture he presents of the young Crabbe is clear and convincing. Academy 23/3, 1907.
All these things had extremely endeared her to the tenderhearted Mrs. Hamley. Gaskell, Wivès I ch. 13.
"He is a man," says the puzzled Pepys, three years after the Restoration, "of great business, and yet of pleasure and dissipation". Green, Short Hist. p. 642.
1) Italics are mine. The last two sentences of this section may also be interpreted as illustrating 1227.



The Deictic Article
191
Marlborough could persuade alternately and simultaneously obstinate James and tbe cold, inscrutable William. He could persuade that exasperating, wooden, procrastinating, thwarting Dutch Slangenberg and the slow, sluggish Pehsionary Heinsius-
Times Lit. 4/11, '15. It is shown in 1274 that the article is not always used in this case. It would seem that the article is preferred when the adjective is emphatically mentioned as expressing a quality that essentially belongs to the person.
1221. The definite article is sometimes used as an introductory article; see 1248. Thus it is often found in short stories. One of these, The Stolen Bacillus by Wells, e. g. opens as follows:
"This again," said the Bacteriologist, slipping a glass slide under a microscope, "is, well — a preparation of the Bacillus of cholera — the cholera germ." Country of the Blind p. 41.
, The reason here is clearly that in a short story there is no time for introductions; acquaintance is taken for granted.
1222. Sometimes the use of the is similar to that of the antecedent pronouns.
She was not of the creatures who are excited by an atmosphere of excitement. Meredith, Amazing Marriage ch. 9.
1223. All nouns take the definite article when they are made definite by an adjunct or clause (a). This applies also to proper names (b). The deietic character of this use is very slight.
a. The age of Elizabeth saw the defeat of the Armada and the rise of England as a great sea-power.
Delmer, Eng. Lit. p. 53.
It seems safe to predict that the trade-returns for the remainder of the year will not come up to the average of the first seven years.



192
Pronouns
ft. This was the Italy of the past, the Italy which lived not for herself, but for the world. Times Lit. 15,6, '16.
But all these fancies were forgotten in inquiries and speculations when on the Wednesday next but one after the Monday of the explosion, Plattner returned. Wells, Country p. 212.
1224. Adjuncts with of cause the headword to take the definite article when they are genitive-equivalents (a); but prepositional adjuncts do not necessarily make the noun definite (ft).
a. To the surprise of everyone, himself included, he was successful.
The ship was under the command of Captain Parker. At the request of the chairman people stopped smoking, ft. Fondness of talk'ing is not a proof of ability to speak in public.
A man of sense would have known what to do in such circumstance. A letter in recommendation of Mr. W. as a clerk.
But compare also the following quotation.
Later on Fielding became stipendiary magistrate and had many opportunities for observing crime and the life in prisons.
Sefton Delmer, Eng. Lit. p. 109.
Anaphoric the
1225. The definite article also serves to refer to a noun mentioned before; it does not refer back to proper names. The anaphoric article difiers from the demonstrative pronouns (1191 ff.) in not distinguishing between here and there; it is more vague.
It is suggested that a candidate, before commencing his course of study, should undergo a thorough medical examination. By such an examination any serious physical disqualification would be revealed, and the candidate probably spared expense and the mortification of rejection.
Public Schools' Year-Book, 1914.



The Classifying Article
193
*Is d inner ready ?" she asked. "Yes, m'm."
"Then ring the gong. And teil Garpenter "
The gong sounded; the dinner was brought in.
Bennett, Leonora ch. 7.
Clmaifying the
1226. The functie» of the article is still less determinate before singular and plural class-nouns.
Before singular class-nouns it may denote one as the representative of a class (a), or as a synonym for the whole group (6). In the first meaning the construction varies with plural class-nouns without the article (c). Plural claas-nouns with the article denote a complete group (d).
a. The pen is mightier than the sword. Lytton, Richelieu. There hardly can be a history of the English borough, for each
borough has its own history. Maitland, Gonst. Bist. p. 52.
Among the animals which have moulded the face of the earth as we now see it the beaver takes a singular place.
Times Lit. 22/?, '14.
b. The Lord Mayor's Show brings «ut the suburbanite in full force. Westm. Gazette.
The enemy was completely beaten.
c. Tramps slouched into the recess and struck matches on the panels; chüdren kept shop upon the steps; the schoolboy had tried his knife on the mouldings; and for close on a generation no one had appeared to drive away these random visitors or to repair their ravages. Stevenson, Dr. Jekyll.
d. A shy man's lot is not a happy one. The men dislike him, the women despise him, and he dislikes and despises himself. Jerome, Idle Thoughts.
Scarcely in autumn have the leaves begun to drop from their high perchts silently downward when the birds begin to drop away. from the bare boughs silently southward.
Allen, Kentucky Cardinal ch. 2.
1227. Closely related to tais is the use of the article with
Kruising,\, Handbook II. Accidence and Syntax. 2. 13



194
Pronouns
strong stress (often shown in print by italics) in the sense of 'the pre-eminent', 'the typical'. But see 1218.
But she feit how different Roger's relation to her was. To him she was the one, alone, peerless.
Gaskell, Wives II p. 162. As it is waterproof and leather-lined throughout, it is the boot for present wear. Advt. The axe was pre-eminently the implement of antiquity.
Lubbock, Prehistorie Times. She had forgotten the face of love. She was a landlady. She was the landlady: efficiënt, stylish, diplomatic, and tremendously experienced. Bennett, Old W. Tale IU ch. 7 § 3.
1228. Some class-nouns when denoting persons or things single in their kind are similarly used with the article, but in its weak-stressed form. They are equivalent to proper namesj: The Lord, the Devil, the Bible, the Tower, the Mint, the sun, the moon. Also the Kaièer, the Zing, the Speaker, the river, referring to one person or river familiar to the speaker. Compare 1269 f.
Ciass-Noun and 1229. The article also has a classifying Proper Name fmiction before nouns followed by a proper name. On combinations of titles with proper names see 1275 ff. He meant to reach the cottage of the labourer Tryst before that early bird was away to the fields.
Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 10. The lad Robert craved that some task might be entrusted to him. Pett Ridge, Garland.
The splendid epic Beowulf is the only great Pre-Christian saga of the Anglo-Saxons that has survived.
Delmer, Eng. Lit. p. 10. One of these was the gasfitter Charles; another was the watchmaker Lestrange.
The widow Osborne; the pilot Barendsz.; the executioner Samson; the apostle St. Paul; the Virgin Mary. The planet Mercury. The name Polonius.



The Classifying Article
195
Nouns expressing trades or professions sometimes follow the proper name, forming an apposition without any pause. This order is usual in the case of names of kings.
Nixon the hatter. Carker the manager. William the Conqueror.
1230. Before the names of the points of the compass, names of seasons, and parts of the day, the classifying article is often used altnough the old construction without the article is also frequent, especially in prepositional adjunctsBut the deictic and the anaphorical article before these nouns is the same as before other nouns. Thus it could not be omitted before nighf, in a sentence like The night was very ehüly.
1231. G-eographical class-nouns are generally connected with proper names by the preposition of (the kingdom, of Holland, etc.; see Prepositions). But river and Mount do not take of; in these cases mount is not preceded by the article. The same applies to cape and lake in many names of capes and lakes. See 1281.
On the banks of the rivers Ticinus and the Trebia.
Goodspeed, Hist. p. 304. The River Thames. Mount Snowdon. Cape Finisterre.
1232. The following classes of proper names take the definite article:
1. proper names with a plural form.
The Andes, the Alps; the East Indies, the Netherlands, the Downs, the Grisons, the Scilly Isles the Heavens, the Scriptures *).
Ij For details, see Poutsma II p. 545 ff.
2) Compare 1282.
3) The last two, like Dow na, are really rather class-nouns; compare Beaven, Scripture. See 1228.



196
Pbonouns
2. names of rivers, seas, oceans and capes.
the Rhine, the Glyde, the Mediterranean, the Atlantic, the Lizard, the Horn, the Land's End, etc.
3. names of ships.
the Invincible, the Lusitania.
In literary English names of rivers are found occasionally without the article.
But her eyes are always turned to the past — to the glories, not of the early Arabs of the Jahiliyeh, but of the great Galiphate which once made the lands watered by Tigris and Euphrates a garden and a granary. Athenaeum.
.... in a certain Western county folding Tbames.
Meredith, Richard Feverel ch. 1.
Adjectives used 1233. Before adjectives used in the funcas Nouns tion of plural or of abstract nouns the definite article must be used. See the chapter on Conversion. Note the absence of the article in the following quotation. And it is not easy to analyse this influence, which, however well meant, was not entirely for good.
Vachell, Quinneys' p. 154.
We have the same use of the article in appositions to proper names, such as Charles the Bóld, William the Silent, etc.
Ordinal Numerals 1234. The definite article always stands before ordinals used to give a date.
April the fifteenth (viz. day), the fifteenth of April. Note that the article, although commonly used in speech, is generally not written when the number follows.
15 (or 15th) April, 1910 or April 15 (or 15th), 1910 = [eiprïl os fiPtinp], or [co fiftinp av eiprïf].
Adverbial the
Comparatlves 1235. The adverbial the has the function of



Adverbial the
197
a demonstrative pronoun used adverbially. It is weakly deictic in the first member of the correlative group the .... the, but in the second the deictic meaning is evident. The is used before the comparative of proportion:
1. to express that two qualities or quantities increase at the same rate.
The fewer men the greater the share of honour.
Hole, Memories.
The keener the observer, of course, and the more openminded the thinker, the more vigorous his prejudices and pronounced his antipathies. Times Lit. 1/10, '14.
The more one has, the more one wants.
2. to express that the increase is dependent upon something or eaused by it.
If he raises his demands I shall grant them the more willingly.
This appreciation of Agnes brought them into closer intimacy, and they talked the more easily of other things.
Bennett, Anna of the Five Towns ch. 10.
Mastera left to serve their country, and the admiration feit for their patriotism was not the less sincere because it was unexpressed. Times Ed. S. 19/10, 16.
Her argument is not the less convincing that it conflicts at one point at least with the contention of some of the other contributors. Times Lit. 15/7, '15,
*But you know, Dr. Tempest, that you don't agree with your Bishop generally."
"Then it is the more fortunate that I shall be able to agree with him on this occasion."
Trollope, Last Ghronicle of Barset ch. 54.
Superiatives 1236. The use of the is frequent before superlatives used as adverb adjuncts, especially those with at.
I do not know which of the two is the best novel, though I know very well which I like the best.
A. C. Bradley in Essays H p. 26»



198
Pronouns
We are sure that those who have known Somerset the longest, will thoroughly enjoy Mr. Hutton's pages.
Athen. 28,12, '12.
It does not matter the least.
Montgomery, Misunderstood ch. 4. It was admitted by those who disliked him the most that he was both practical and just.
Trollope, Last Ghronicle of Barset ch. 47. Moreover, it is the recent political development of Norway which now interests historians the most. Pilot.
But for that very reason you are open to be tempted the most. Meredith, R. Feverel.
No doubt the feat was easy to Mr. Utterson; for he was undemonstrative at the best. Stevenson, Dr. Jekyll.
This was Leslie Stephen's fortune at the last. Pilot. At the worst it's no worse than a rise in rates and taxes.
Meredith, Egojst.
1237. Absence of the is more usual, however; especially in spoken English.
Apples flourish best on cultivated land and, in most cases, least well on grass. All mourned for him, they most who knew him best.
Dean Hole, Memories p. 60. The Nor mans claimed the leadership of the world in the eleventh century because they were best fitted to lead it.
Wakeman, Introd. p. 75. His best pupils sometimes differed from him, and perhaps those who most differed admired him most and loved him best.
Westminster School.
1238. It is sometimes necessary to use the before predicative superlatives (if formed with most), to prevent them from being taken for absolute superlatives.
It was perhaps at this time that Mrs. Henry and I were . the most uheasy in mind.. Stevenson.



The Indefinite Article
199
Of all his thoughts, as he stood there counfing his cigars, this was the most poignant, the most bitter *).
Galsworthy, Man of Property I ch. 2. The large room at 202 High Street which Michael shared with Grainger and Londsdale was perhaps in the annals of uni versity lodgings the most famous '). Sinister Street p, 733. The high mixed vowels are the most difficult').
Sweet, Sounds of English p. 36.
The omission of the would cause the superlative in the first quotation to express the meaning: very uneasy. But it is clear from the context that we have relative superlatives in the following sentences.
Although Dryden wrote no fewer than 27 plays he had no genius for drama. He only wrote to please the fashion. He is most famous for the political satires of his second period.
Sefton Delmer, Eng. Lit.
Curiously enough, the communal revolution began most quietly in the land where it was ultimately responsible for the fiercest conflicts. Davis, Med. Europe p. 226.
The Indefinite Article
Forms 1239. The indefinite article is [e] a, or [en] an. We use [e] a before non-syllabic sounds, [en] an before syllabie sounds; the stressed forms are [ei] and [asn],
a man an old man
a history an heiress
a historical novel
1240. Before unstressed h, less often before [ju] u, some writers make a point of using an:
1) In these sentences the superlatives can also be looked upon as attributive adjectives (for the absence of the prop- word one, see Indefinite Pronouns). In that case the is, of course, an article. But in the first quotation the is an adverb.



200
Pbonouns
an hotel, unit, university, humiliation.
Sinister Street, p. 550, 508, 686, 724. an historical explanation of our Parliamentary form; an habitual practice; an usage. Freeman, Growth p. 130.
Also in some expressions, such as such an one, an hundredfold, The use of an in these cases, as before [ju], is archaic; in older English the words began with a syllabie sound.
The use of [on] before words with unstressed h is of a different character; it is due to the glide-character of the sound; see 1214. Compare also English Sounds.
1241. Before abbreviations we use a or an according to the sound that follows. So an M. P. is read [en em pi], but a M. P. is equally possible: [a member ov palament]; an E. A. [an ar ei] i.e. a member of the Boyal Academy (of Painting).
It was written as a thesis for a M. A. [a mastar av ats] degree at Toronto University. [iz ïj an em dij ?l) ou nöu, ij z ounlï an em a sij -es *)].
Sweet, Spoken English p. 72. She's a M. F. H. 3). Gotes, Ginderella ch. 7.
Use 1242. The indefinite article is used before singular class-nouns. Note that all nouns can be converted into classnouns by prefixing the indefinite article. Thus virtue is usually an abstract noun but it is a class-noun in poverty is not a crime but it is not a virtue either. Milton is usually a proper name, but it is a class-noun in Nobody is bound to be a Milton. On the indefinite article before nouns with a plural form, see 827 ff. and 864 ff.
1) M. D. i. e. Medicinae Doctor.
2) M. R. C. s. i. e. Member of the Royal College of Surgeons.
3) i. e. Master of the Fox Hounds.



The Indefinite Article
201
1243. The indefinite 'article may be: 1. introductory.
Once upon a time there lived on the edge of a wide common a poor shoemaker and his wife, etc.
I 2. absolute. In this case the article simply denotes that the person or thing belongs to a class; sometimes it has a weak numerica| meaning. The difference between these two is clearly seen when the nouns are put in the plural:
It is dwagreeable travelling with a dog (plural: dogs). I saw him walking with a dog (plural: some dogs).
Your wife is a striking person. Vachell, Pinch of Prosperity. I can't imagine why he should give me a sovereign.
1244. The numerical meaning is sometimes very prominent.
He was so well built that not a move ment of his limbs was heavy. Galsworthy, Freelands, p. 73.
Rome was not built in a day. It costs a shilling only.
1245. Before a title with a proper name the indefinite article has the sence of 'a certain'. See 1361 on one. If used before a proper name without a title the indefinite article has the function of making the proper name into a classnoun. See 1242.
For a happy change he was sent to school, to the establishment of a Mr. Jones. Forster-Gissing p. 32.
From the church they went about their proper business, to interview a Mr. Pogram, of the firtn of Pogram and GoUet, solicitors. Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 22.
1246. The indefinite article is also used before verbs to show their' partial conversion into nouns; see 1711.
v 1247. In exclamatory sentehees what is followed by a Glass-noun wifcfc the: ina^fkulte .«rticlej. This distingüishes the



202
Pronouns
exclamatory from the interrogative what, though naturally only in the case of a singular class-noun following what. See 1117. The article is also found in subordinate exclamations.
What a foolish thing to say.
Whüt a charming face! What long,strange, beautiful eyes! What delicate features! But how cross the small lady wasl What a hurry you are in. Oxf. Dict. s. v. hurry, 5. You don't know what a privilege it is to be ai man.
1248. The use of what a many is not considered Standard English.
What a many novels there must be that would have told all about it! De Morgan, Vance ch. 50.
1249. It should be remembered that some nouns can be looked upon as class-nouns but also as abstract nouns. This explains the varied practice in following quotations.
What a difference to one's well-being is made by the possession of a comb. Rider Haggard, Meeson's Will. What difference I found between your words and mine. Strand Mag. April 1916. What a great service you have rendered me, John!
Stevenson, Uncle Bernac. What good service this pen has done me! John Halifax.
Absence of the Article
1250. The fact that nouns can take the articles in English causes the absence of the articles to be of grammatica! importance too. Just as it is often the function of the definite article to call up in our minds the idea of a definite person or thing, it is characteristic of nouns without an article that they have no such definite or individual character.
Oonsequently the article is especially absent before material and abstract nouns; hence also before class-nouns when they become closely related in meaning to material nouns (e.g.



Absence of the Article
203
collective nouns, and names of méals), or to abstract nouns (e.g. names of places). See 1251 ff.
On the other hand, no individualiaing article can be required by proper names, because they denote individuals. For the same. reason some class-nouns take no article {father, mother, and generally nouns used in addressing people). See 1269 ff.
Absence of the article, whether definite or indefinite, may also be due to the function of the noun in the sentence: 1287 ff.
. Abstract and 1251. Absence of the article is characteristic Material Nouns of abstract and material nouns, when Used in a general sense.
Why is hope one of the cardinal virtues?
Times Lit. 4/1, '18. '
Cleanliness is next to godliness. ' Charity creates much of the misery it relieves, but does not relieve all the misery it creates.
Fact is usually less entertaining than fiction.
If war breaks out the Bulgarians will want all the help and sympathy they can get from Western Europe.
No other writer of antiquity has been more familiar to Christianity than Virgil.
They dared not even speak to one another, but sat, one in the bow, one in the stern, in silent patience, waiting for deatb.
Famine compelled the city of Paris to open its gates.
The scheme was adopted and on January 10, 1840 Penny Postage began.
Coal is found in many parts of England.
Black bread is never eaten in England.
Water is the .best drink when one is really thirsty.
Plural 1252. The absence of the definite article
Class-Nouns Defore plural class-nouns nouns shows that they are to be taken in a general sense.
Sixty years ago! men still thought it wonderful that for a single penny a letter might be sent to a friend five hundred miles off. liri lot • ..**>si



204
Pronouns
The story is well told, and mountaineers will follow the straightforward narrative with interest throughout.
In the wüderness, meals, as a rule, are consumed rapidly and in silence. Vachell, Spragge p. 44.
Few teachers are bom, good ones must be made.
Sat. Rev. 10/11, '17.
The troops turned out from their encampments, which have filled the parks with cities of white tents; detachments of police marched up, and the stands began to fill.
1253. When a material noun or a plural class-noun is preceded by most no article is used when the noun is taken in a general sense and we divide the person or things into two classes (most and oihers).
Most people remember Sir George White only as the brave defender of Lady smith. Times Lit. 23/12, '15.
1254. When the noun is taken in a definite sense the article or another qualifier is used and most of.
Most of the books he wrote are completely forgotten now. Most of that money was eamed.
1255. When there is no division into two classes, but a comparison of number or quantity, the most precedes the noun.
The right man for her is he who has the most money and the biggest position. ■ Hobbes, Some Emotions I ch. 4.
1256. A special case of 1252 is the noun forming an adjunct with of to a superlative or to a nr mn with a meaning equivalent to a superlative.
A monument in honour of the greatest of English poets. If I am the chief of sinners, I am the chief of sufferers also.
Stevenson, Dr. Jekyll. The heartiest of welcomes awaited us at the really humble cottage. Jerrold, Meredith.



Absence of the Article
205
In this construction, especially when the noun in the o/-adjunct is in the singular, the article really qualifies the noun in the q/-adjunct. Thus the speaker of present-day English in such a case as the politest of reeeption takes the as qualifying reeeption, and politest of as an adjunct as well. See 1467, 1553, and compare also 1309.
1257. It is often possible to use a plural class-noun in a general sense or in the sense of the class as a whole without great difference or meaning.
To the men •) at the end of the fifteenth century scarcely a year but brought another bit of received and recognized thinking to the scrap-heap. Mair, Eng. Lit.
Here we have the text with all allusions explained, and a translation. Dr. Rouse, Classical Rev.
But for the most reckless among the reckless, for the spendthrift among spendthrifts, for the gamester above all gamesters, and for a gay man outstripping the gay — by these characteristics did the world know Lord Mount Severn.
1258. Note that in the last quotation the article is necessary before adjectives used as nouns denoting persons, because these are only used as such when the whole class is meant. Hence also the article in the following passage:
What Chambers of Gommerce are for employers and capita], Trade Councils in some degree are for the unemployed and for labour.
Collective 1259. Singular class-nouns are often found Nouns without an article when they are taken in a collective sense (a). Man and woman are especially common in this function (b).
4) Compare people. Perhaps the article Is here due to the following prepositional adjunct: see 1223.



206
Pronouns
a. From the canvas bag she poured a small heap of coin.
Hardy, Madding Crowd.
Dick says Pve a good deal of muscle for a boy that's only seven. Burnett, Fauntleroy.
They cross-examined the saints for their attestation of miracle and prophecy, but omitted to discover the secret of their life. Gamb. Hist. of Eng. Lit. XII, 279.
Gocheforêt lies in a billowy land of oak and beech and chestnuts — a land of deep, leafy bottoms and hills clothed with forest. Weyman, Red Robe ch. 2.
b. Woman has hitherto played but a small part in the industrial system of the North, and the process of substituting women for men in the factories has consequently been a slow one. Times Lit. 28/12, '17.
Instead of painting the outer man, he paints the soul in man. Bode p. 4.
Man cannot live by epigram alone, and plain prose has its uses. Walker, Lit. Yict. Era.
On woman's part in primitive agriculture Dr. Frazer sheds much welcome light. Athen. 27/7, '12.
Now study is knowledge co-ordinated by reflection, and as such it is peculiar to mankind; for the most fundamental difference between man and animals consists in a man's power of reflection. Vinogradoff, Common Sense in Law p. 9.
It is from this reflective element that men draw their immense superiority over animals. ib. p. 10.
1260. But when these words are taken as class-nouns in a general sense the indefinite article is used; also the definite article when man and woman are contrasted.
A woman should not despise domestic duties.
The woman gives all to one, the man gives a little to many
The man lives by ideas; the woman by sensations.
Waugh, Reticence in Lit. p. 13.
Names of 1261. Names of regular meals take no article, Meals unless a definite occasion is referred to.



Absence of the Artiole
207
Dinner is on the table, Sir!
Galsworthy, Man of Property ch. 7.
After dinner they went out. James, Oaisy Miller p. 116.
"Poor fellow, of course he's tired," said Mrs. Garthew. "A most disturbing experience. Come along. Dinner will do him good." ^ Sinister Street p. 725.
At last déjeuner was served to her.
Belloc-Lowndes, Armour ch. 3.
George likes coffee for breakfast, and tea for tea.
He sat down to the dinner that had heen hoarding for him by the fire. Dickens, Christmas Garol.
"God sanctify this food to our use and us to His service for Christ's sake, Amen."
The breakfast proceeded in silence. Breakfast at eight, dinner at noon, tea at four, supper at eight: all the meals in this house occurred with absolute precision and sameness.
Bennett, Anne of the Five Towns ch. 3.
Names of f262. Many class-nouns denoting places are Places uséd without an article when the use of the place is referred to, e.g., tchool when meaning 'a session of school', or 'the set time of attendance at school'. The construction is especially common in prepositional adjuncts.
About ten minutes before school Martin and Arthur arrived in the quadrangle. School begins at half past eight. Let a man walk for an hour before bed. I shall go to him after church.
A barrister may be reprimanded by the judge if he misconducts himself in court.
1 had been awake and hot and thirsty in the night, but in the morning bed feit comfortable. Wells, Country p. 164.
I rose accordingly fróm table, got into a hansom, and drove straight to JekylPs house. Stevenson, Dr. Jekyll p. 91.
Lift the baggage up on my saddle, Hartmann, and I will carry her back to camp. Buchanan, That Winter Night ch. 4.



208
Pkonouns
In hall the second-year men were not quite as rowdy as they used to be. Sinisler Street p. 779.
He turned disconsolately out of the Iodge and walked round Cloisters, out through one of the dark -entries on to the lawns of New Quad gold-marked in the morning stillness.
ib. p. 578.
School or the University ') produces a marked effect on the speech of a young man. Greenough and Eittredge, Words. The case has been already settled out of court. Prison for lads should be the last, and not the first resort. You used to do it nicely before you went to boarding-school.
Vachell, Quinneys' p. 187. He had no liking for bed this many a long year.
Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 16.
1263. The article is always used according to the general rules when the building as such is referred to.
And now I pass as an ecclesiaslic — for this chapter was to be ecclesiastical — as I passed daily for more than thirty years, from the church to the school. Memories p. 174 f.
Names of 1264. No article is usually found before many Diseases names of diseases or complaints.
He soon succumbed to an attack of acute bronchitis.
Oxf. Dict.
Indigestion is learnedly spoken of as dyspepsia. Measles are in Jena, and also the whooping-cough.
Elizabeth, Frl. Schmidt ch. 20. On wet Sundays, or whenever he had a touch of rheumatism, he used to read the three first chapters of Genesis.
Eliot, Bede ch. 18.
Nouns of Time 1265. Many nouns denoting time are often used without an article (a); regularly when they are qualified by last or next, «comparing the time with the present (b).
1) The word- University does not, Kke school or college, suggest abuild ing, and takes the article, like other singular class-nouns.



Absence of the Article
209
a. Term drew to a close. Sinister Street p. 552. Darkness had to a great extent arrived hereon (viz. on the
heath), while day stood distinct in the sky ').
Hardy, Return of the Native I ch. 1. The next day as Gordon was walking across the courts in break "the Buil" came up to him.
Waugh, Loom of Youth I ch. 6. Clarke had been quiet nearly the whole of hall; there was obviously something up. ib. ch. 6.
The sensation he caused was highly gratifying. By prayers all his'friends and most of his acquaintances knew of it.
ib. III ch. 2.
b. To begin with, his father was an Archdeacon, and since he wore a shovel -hat and odd, black, wrinkled gaiters even when, as during last summer holidays, he climbed the hills in the Lake District.... Benson, Blaize ch. 4, p. 62.
Traditional 1266. The absence of the article in a great Phrases many prepositional adjuncts (by land, by sea, on land, by train, etc.) may be explained as traditional, but the very general or indefinite meaning of the nouns in these combinations has no doubt helped to preserve them. See also 1236.
We similarly find a noun without any qualifier where the alternative would be a possessive pronoun (see 1108), as in the following cases:
At length I saw a lady within call.
Tennyson (Poutsma p. 811). The Prince of Tarentum pays court to him.
Marj. Bowen. ib. To break faith, to join (shake) hands, to lose heart, to keep house, to keep word.
1) The contrast day: darkness shows that the absence of the article is due to the abstract meaning of day (see 1250).
Kruisinga, Handbook II. Accidence and Si/ntax. 2. 14



210
Pronouns
Adjectives of 1267- Before adjectives denoting languages language or and colours the article is not used, at any rate colour in spoken English. The adjectives are really converted into nouns. The cause of the absence of the article is probably the same as in the case of material nouns (dressed in velvet).
It is really necessary for you to learn German. He translates articles from English into Dutch. Mrs. B. was dressed in black.
1268. The article is used in the expression to translate a book from the Bussian, English, etc.; and occasionally in other cases.
For these (viz. translations of the classics) a kind of precedent already existed in the shape of translations of Latin authors into the Italian. Edinb. Rev.
The word Bible came into English from the Greek through the Latin.
There are no words in English so unfixed and fluctuating as these late borrowings from the French.
Pearsall Smith, The English Lang. p. 37 (and oftener).
Proper Names 1269. As a general rule singular proper names have no article.
John, Holland, London, Snowdon, Vesuvius.
Vocatives 1270. As no article is used before nouns in the form of address {Yes, sir; yes, father; be quiet, boys, etc), some nouns that are often so used, regularly take no article even when they are used to refer to the persons. Such are names expressing relationship or trade, profession, etc.: father, mother, aunt, unele; nurse, eook, etc. These nouns have the character of proper names. Compare 1228, and also 1287.
Father told me to cash this cheque. Nurse will take you out for a walk.



Absence op the Article
211
Cook had gone out to do some marketing.
Baring-Gould in Svvaen I p. H.
Of course, when these words are used as ordinary classnouns, the article (or the possessive pronoun) may precede, according to the general rules. See e.g. the last quotation of 1108.
1271. A similar explanation will account for the frequent absence of the article before such words as prisoner, witness, defendant. This is naturally found in technical (i.e. legal) language.
In a bitter voice prisoner continued: If I go to penal servitude what shall I do when I come out of prison?
1272. The article is also absent before names of things that are single in their kind or that are thought of with special reference to one institution. Thus Heaven, Heil; Parliament, Congrees, Convocabion are often found without the article.
The road to Heil is paved with good intentions. Parliament was prorogued on the 24*.
1273. The absence of the article before Fate, Chanee, Fortune, Nature may be due to their character of proper names; they may also be considered as abstract nouns.
Adjective and 1274. In the combination of adjective and Proper Name proper name denoting a person or a place the article is usually absent, especially when the adjective has an emotional rather than a purely descriptive value; see 1220.
Tiny Tim, Black William; Ancient Rome, Tudor England, Eastern France, Old England.
In little Charles this teacher took much interest.
Forster-Gissing.
'Yes,' said Big Toomai, his driver, the son of Black Toomai, who had taken him to Abyssynia. Kipling, Jungle-Book.



212
Pronouns
There was a time, sir, when I was butler to old Sir Jabez Gilchrist, this young gentleman's father.
Poor Mrs. Hamley could hardly do without Molly; she quite looked upon her as a daughter. Gaskell, "Wives II p. 12.
But it is time for Edwin and Hilda to come up in the world. And that they do. Edwin's business grows. Ambitious Hilda makes something as near a country gentleman of him as he is capable of becoming. Times Lit. 20/11, '16.
She sent her mind to Aunt Charlotte, disreputable Aunt Gharlotte, deplorable Aunt Charlotte, who quarrelled with the world and with whom the world quarrelled.
Pett Ridge, Garland ch. 8.
In old Japan one of the quaintest holidays was that of the 8th of December. Athenaeum 23/5, 1908.
No writer of the time gives us a more vivid picture of Elizabethan London. Dobson, Yignettes p. 45.
Gorrespondence continues to reach us on the' subject of pension terms on the Continent, not only in Lovely Lucerne, but also in Alluring Avignon, Dusky Dinard, Tollollish Trouville'), Cheap Chamounix, and Godly Grindelwald.
If the ingenious foreigner found himself in some village of manufacturing Lancashire, he would be otherwise impressed.
Here I am upon a spur of the Gotswold, and before me spreads the wide vale of Evesham, with its ripening cróps, its fruiting orchards, watered by sacred Avon.
1) The meaning of tollollish is not generally known. The word is not registered in the Oxford Dictionary. The Dialect Dict. explains tol-lol as 'intoxicated'.
Farmer and Henley, Dictionary of Slang, explain toll-loll (or toll-lollish) as 'tolerable, pretty good, nothing to grumble at.' Compare also:
"Sir", he said, "the picture of your home is very pleasant, and I presume that plenty abounds there."
"Well, you know, pretty toll-loll for that. With twelve o' them, Mr. Crawley, I needn't teil you they are not going to have castles and parks Of their own, unless they can get 'em off their own bats."
Trollope, Last Chron. of Barset ch. 33 p. 280.
Attaché to the Naples embassy, sounds tol-lol.
Meredith, Harrington ch. 47.



Absence op the Article
213
Noun and Proper 1275. No article is used before familiar Name titles and names expressing relationship» followed by the proper name of a person.
King Edward, Queen Victoria, Cardinal Newman, Father *) Black, Mr. Jones, Miss Jones, Mrs. Jones, Messrs. Watson & Co.J), Professor Jones, Count Bismarck, Count Andrassy, Count Stanislas, Earl Grey, Sir Walter Scott, Monsieur Paul Cambon.
Uncle John, Aunt Mary, Cousin Jack, etc.
Count Hayashi, whose death we announced briefly in our late editions last week, was the first Japanese Ambassador to Great Britain. Times W., 18/7, '13.
The deaths are reported of the Archduke Rainer, Sefior Moret, Mr. Eirikr Magnüsson, Mr. Auguste van Biene, Canon W. B. Grenside, Mr. Gyril Dodd, K. C. and others. ib. 31/1, '13.
Herr Denhof has completed arrangements for another extensive tour in the North. Athenaeum, 2/8, '13.
Four Beethoven concerts under the direction of Heer Mengelberg. ib.
1276.' The reason why names of titles deviate from the usual treatment of nouns before proper names (1229) is evident. For these titles are subordinated to the following noun, not only in meaning, but also in form. In a groüp like the lad Bobert the two nouns have even stress, in Mr. Roberts the title is weak-stressed. For this reason, too, it is the familiar titles only that take no article. The title may be so completely subordinated to the following noun that its
1) Title of a Roman Catholtc, or English Catholic, priest, usually a member of a religious community.
2) The article is necessary in such a case as the following: ... in the following proportions, namely 19—40ths to each of the Messrs. Ash, and 2—40ths to Mr. Seed. Times.
In the following quotation we probably have the demonstrative the before Meurt: Rhodes's friend Paulins, the famous rail way contractor, and the Messrs. Erlanger, bankers of this city, came to the rescue.
Times W. 11/5, '17.



214
Pronouns
nominal character is lost; thus saint in St. Mary, etc. is probably taken for an adjective by modern English speakers, although S. S. Simon and Jude may suggest that it was formerly taken for a noun. See the sections on Attributive Adjuncts in the chapters on Sentence-Structure and on Order of Words.
1277. Names of trades or professions are often used without the article in this case.
A little later, strolling across the rooms toward them alone, came Judge Morris. Allen, Mettle of the Pasture.
Superintendent Taylor and Sergeant Fowle motored to Scotland Yard. Daily Mail.
Farmer Blaize, Constable Dempsey, Policeman Turner, Private Mulvaney, General Botha, Admiral Beresford.
Note that a noun is often the name of a profession, as well as a title, e.g. constable, private, sergeant, general, admiral.
1278. Unfamiliar titles require the article.
Before emperor we sometimes find no article used in present-day English because it has become more and more familiar. But this use is still limited to contemporary and well-known sovereigns; the article is always used in referring to older times.
The Regent Murray.
They were finally defeated disastrously and the consul Regulus surrendered. Goodspeed, Ancient World.
Emperor William loses no opportunity of magnifying his office- Everyman, 25/19, '12.
On the death of Emperor Mutsuhito, there closed, as Mr. Asquith said, "the most memorable reign in modern history."
Times W. 3/1, '13.
1279. Before Kaiser with the proper name the article was usual down to recent times, but at present the proper name



Absence of the Article
215
is seldom added (Hang the Koker: Lloyd George's Election cry in 1918). Before some titles, such as Sultan, Arehduke usage is not uniform.
The Kaiser Wilhelm IX, is so interesting and able a monarch that we are concerned to know him as well as possible.
Pilot, 1902.
1280. In literary, or rather official, English we often find the article used before familiar (as well as unfamiliar) titles.
The Lady Emily; the Princess Alice; the Gountess Beauchamp.
The Earl Carrington, K. G., G. C. M. G., has tendered, and the King has been pleased to accept, his resignation of the office of Lord Privy Seal. The King has been pleased to approve the appointment of the Marquis of Crewe, K. G., to be Lord Privy Seal, in the place of Lord Carrington. The King has been pleased to approve the appointment of the Right Hon. Thomas McKinnon Wood to be Secretary for Scotland. in the place of the Lord Pentland.
The King has been pleased to confer the dignity of a marquisate of the United Kingdom upon the Earl Carrington, K. G., G. C. M. G. Daily News, 14/2, '12.
1281. The case of geographical names without the article (Cape Lixard, Lahe Baikal, etc.: see 1231) is quite the same as that of title and proper name. Whereas county in English names takes the article (the county of Cheshire) Irish counties are used without: County Mayo,
Proper Name 1282. Class-nouns preceded by an attributive and proper name often have no article when they Class-noun denote buildings and streets (a). Names of canals, on the other hand always take the definite article (b), the proper name being feit as an attributive adjunct rather 4 as part of an inseparable group. The same explanation accounts for the article in other names of places (c); especially when



216
Pronouns
the combination is occasional (d), which is indicated by the spelling of the class-noun (no capital).
a. Buckingham Palace, Windsor Castle, Plymouth Harbour, Kingstreet'), Edgware Road, Leicester Square, Waterloo Bridge, Hyde Park, Bheims Cathedral, Banbury Cross.
He was duly at Transham station in time for the London train. Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 25.
b. The Panama Canal. The Suez Canal.
c. The Glarendon Hotel, the South Kensington Museum, the Garrick Theatre, the Albert Hall.
d. The Thames basih, the Nile valley.
1283. Sometimes the article seems to be used as being more dignified (compare the occasional use of the article before the combination of a title and a proper name: 1280).
Viscount Haldane presided last evening at a dinner at the Savoy Hotel organized in aid of the building and endowment fund of Bedford College for women... Queen Alexandra sent
the following telegram: in aid of the building fund of
the Bedford College for women...
The cab entered the Euston Road. Galsworthy, Fraternity.
Having graduated very highly at the London University. ib.
Singular 1284. The definite article is absent before Class-Nouns singular nouns in enumerations and when they are contrasted.
He follows the history of early dramatic efforts in Church, University, School, Court; in the pageants of the cities, and the songs and representations of the people.
Athenaeum, 2/11, '12.
Within (i. e. within the church) it was cool and dark; it was furnished sparely with seat and screen, and held monuments of old knights and ladies. Benson, Thread of Gold, p. 31.
Alike in Nicias and in Napoleon the mingled languor and
1) Note the spelling in one word.



Absence of the Article
217
impatience of disease distorted the imagination and rendered will and judgment unsure. Athenaeum, 14/9, '12.
But a careless student might well be forgiven for supposing that Voltaire's quarrel was, not with the religious establishment in France, but with religion in any shape whatever. He hated Jansenist as much as Jesuit.
Millar, Mid-eighteenth Cent., p. 21.
Brother and sister were about to leave the mountain-land for England. Meredith, Amazing Marriage ch. 4.
We ourselves have seen fox, deer, and hare deliberately chased by the same pack on the same day, and never had • better fun. Times Lit. 14/9, '16.
Soldiers of the cross there were, numerous, brave, and noble-spirited as ever; but imperfectly armed, overwhelmed with confusion, without discipline, without leader, without organisation. Wakeman, Introd, p. 393 f.
1285. For the same reason the article is absent in many prepositional groups, such as from beginning tó end, from cover to cover, from Norih to South, etc.
1286. Oonverted adjectives are also found without the article in enumerations and contrasts.
French and Germans may both remain quite assured that we shall not abandon our efforts. Times W.
Through thick and thin. From grave to gay.
Form of Address 1287. In the form of address both singular and plural class-nouns are used without the article. See 1270. Come along, pet. Be quiet, boys.
Preposition 1288. A group of a preposition with a noun Equivalents qualified by of is sometimes used as a prepositioneguivalent. Some of these expressions are always used without the article; in otherstthe forms with the article are the rule.



218
Pkonouns
The article is always absent in the combination in front of, because of1), and many others.
Mr. William Freeland, who a week ago was laid to rest in a Glasgow cemetery, in presence of a large gathering representative of art and joumalism. Academy.
In face of common dangers and common demands they have tended more and more to make common cause.
Edinb. Rev.
There remain other Parliamentary Gommissions forpurpose of investigation strictly judicial in their character and their attributes. Gourtney, Gonstitution.
In place of dry details or pious discourses the reader will here meet with some of the masterpieces of Icelandic literature.
Athenaeum.
The second volume in chronological order, the third in order of publication. Pilot.
This brings one in sight of certain general canons of criticism. Leslie Stephen, G. Eliot.
After seeing the gannet every day for months one would be apt to think that this species is incapable of making a mistake and is beyond reach of accident. Quoted by Athenaeum.
.... this pilgrims' Mecca should be acquired as a national possession before it is spoilt beyond hope of redemption.
Athenaeum.
They had started from their headquarters under cover of darkness.
Also: prejudiced in favour of the Japanese,in fullpossession of all her facullies, by way of precaution (illustration), by reason of, in virtue of, in imitation of, in case of, under pretext of, in hopes of, etc. But we also find the article used, as in the face of, and always in the expressions on the strength of, on the ground of Plans, perseveringly carried out in the face of many discouragements.
He was appointed on the strength of my recommendation.
1) The latter, indeed, is rather a single word to a present-day speaker.



Absence of the Article
219
Nouns in apposition 1289. Class-nouns in apposition to proper qualified by of names 0f persons have no article -when ihey denote a title (a), or when the apposition serves to identify the person (b). The same applies to proper names of places (e).
a. William III., King of England.
b. Mr. George B. McLellan, son of the famous general who al most got to Richmond — but not quite — in 1862. Pilot.
The 'Dialectics' of Aristotle as rendered by the famous John Case, author of thé 'Sphaera Civitatis', whose grim visage looks down upon the high table of St. John's College in Oxford to-day. Athenaeum.
We regret to announce the death of Mr. Alfred Webb of Dublin, author of the 'Compendium of Irish Biography', and many pamphlets and articles on Irish subjects. ib,
c. In the year 1892 Bleakridge, residential suburb of Bursley, was still most plainly divided into old and new.
Bennett, These Twain I ch. 1.
1290. If the definite article is used before an appositional noun qualified by of, the article has the meaning 'the wellknown', etc. See 1185.
the diary of a soldier, Daniël Nicol, who spent the
last thirty years of his life in the warehouse of Cadell, the publisher of Scott's novels. Athenaeum.
The denial of a hearing to Sir Victor Horsley, the President of the Gouncil of the Association and one of the most brilliant of living specialists, was a deplorable exhibition. Times.
Messrs. Macmillan & Co. will publish shortly 'Wealth and Welfare', by Mr. A. C. Pigou, the Professor of Political Economy at Cambridge. Athenaeum, 26/10, '12.
Verbal Phrases 1291. A verb sometimes' forms a semantic unit with a direct object qualified by an adjunct with of (e.g. to take care of). The noun in such verbal phrases is used without an. article. See 279 ff. and Sentence-Structure.



220
PfiONOUNS
In his first nine years of work we have record of but ten stories. Edinb. Rev.
We should be wrong to omit mention of the fact that...
Pilot.
Predicative 1292. Predicative class-nouns are often used Nouns without an article. The cause of this is that predicative nouns often have the function of adjectives. Sometimes it is indifferent whether an adjective is used oranoun. Compare He is English and He is an Englishman. See further the sections on predicative adjuncts in the chapter on SentenceStructure.
a. Against his change of politics she raised no protest, though she herself was born and bred Gonservative.
Pickthall, Larkmeadow, ch. 16.
This thesis — for thesis, and nothing more, it at present is — would no doubt make the basis of a very keen discussion in any gathering of naval men. Times W.
When he resolved that Sam Weller should be occupant of the prison with Mr. Pickwick, he was perhaps thinking of his favourite Smollett, and how, when Peregrine Pickle was inmate of the Fleet, Hatchway and Pipes refused to leave him.
Forster-Gissing.
Tolstoy, like other men of genius, was in his heart more woman than man, but he was mere man enough to be blind to the charms of rawer infancy. Times, Lit. 29,10, '14.
He had never quite grown out of the feeling that to make himself conspicuous in any way was bad form.
Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 3.
b. As precedent for this he might quote nearly all the greatest novel-writers. Academy.
But all this, inspiring though it was, served but as prelude to a more profoundly coveted acquaintance. Malet, Calmady.
c. In the subsequent part of the main narrative will be found exemplified nearly all the varieties of pathos of which Dickens was afterwards so repeatedly to prove himself master.
Ward, Dickens, ch. 2, p. 23.



Absence op the Abticle
221
We really have the same case when no article is used after by way of.
Mr. Oak carried about him, by way of watch, what may be called a small silver clock.
Hardy, Madding Crowd ch. I p. 2.
1293. The article is regularly absent before predicative class-nouns opening concessive clauses with as or though (a), or parenthetic exclamatory clauses with that (b).
Sketch as it is, the book is no mere compilation.
Athenaeum, 18/11, '11. Mr. Eden Phillpotts, exquisite artist as he is in prose, still cherished an ambition to wear the sister bays.
Academy, 17/8, '12. I have encouraged him too much — vain fooi that I was.
Kingsley, Hypatia ch. 4. Child though he was, consciousness of self had come to him.
Benson, Blaize ch. 5.
1294. Absence of the article is very frequent before predicative nouns with an of- adjunct.
Colonel Rannion was brother of the wife of the man for whom George had built the house at Hampstead.
Bennett, Roll-Call H ch. 3 § 1. Her father, Robert Evans, was son of George Evans, a builder and carpenter in Derbyshire. L. Stephenj G. Eliot.
Mr. Millar, who has been on the staff of The Dundee Advertiser for twenty-seven years, is author of several works.
Athenaeum.
Williams was son of an officer in the service of the East India Company. Lit. World.
A man sat writing near a window of an old house out in the country a few years ago; it was afternoon of the twentythird of December. Allen, Mistletoe p. 13.
1295. The adjectival character of a predicative noun is evident when it is qualified by an adverb. In such a case



222
Pronouns
the article is never found. Compare also the sections on the conversion of nouns into predicative adjectives.
Glotilda was woman euough to appreciate his' personal refinement. Sidgwick, Severins.
Mark was artist enough to perceive the delicious half-tones, the tender shades beneath the round chin and about the finely modelled cheeks. Vachell, Brothers vol. II ch. 5. She was free agent enough to take so much on herself.
Trollope, Framley ch. 35. He seems to have been villain enough for anything.
De Morgan, Vance ch. 49.
1296. When a predicative noun has a distinctly substantival function the article must be used.
"Why do you take all this trouble for Milly?" she asked him. "It's very good of you." "Because I'm a fooi, a meddling ass," he replied lightly.
Bennett, Leonora ch. 7.
1297. When a predicative noun denoting rank, title, post, etc. can refer to one person only, no article is used:
1. in the nominal predicate.
He is Tammany candidate for mayor, but otherwise undistinguished, except that he is a Member of Congress.
Of this Guild Mr. Haldane, the Secretary of State for War is president.
In fact, he had been asked to become tutor to Lord Hartington.
He was for many years reader and literary adviser to Messrs. Chapman and Hall. Sturge-Henderson, Meredith. p. 9. In 52 B. G. Pompey was made sole consul.
Goodspeed, Hist. p. 347. When he was only 2G and a layman he was chosen headtnaster of Harrow in succession to Dr. Yaughan.
Times W. 18/1, '18.
2. in adjuncts introduced by as or for.



Absence op the Akttcle
223
About this time an elderly woman of the village came to live as servant at the parsonage.
Gaskell, Life of G. Brontë ch. 5.
A committee with Sir Oliver Lodge as Chairman.
As rector of Alderley he breathed new vigour into parish work.
Dryden owned that as Chancellor he was "swift lo despatch, and easy of access."
There was less profundity in the letters he soon afterwards began to write as special correspondent for the Daily News.
In this eventful year Tennyson succeeded Wordsworth as poet laureate.
In the autumn of 1903 Sir Norman Lockyer, as President of the British Association, delivered a very remarkable address.
He acted as correspondent for the Morning Post during the Austro-Italian war of 1866. Sturge-Henderson, Meredith.
Here for many years, as Prince of Wales, he entertained his relations, his friends, and his neighbours.
Lucky devil, Felix, to have her for daughter I
Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 23.
8. in adjuncts to the object.
German tribes deposed the last Roman emperor, and proclaimed their leader Odoaker king of Rome. Goodspeed.
1298. When the noun does not refer to one person, however, the indefinite article is used in all three cases.
1. In his twenty-third year he became a reporter for the Morning Chronicle. Forster-Gissing.
My father was an officer in an Indian regiment, who sent me home when I was quite a child.
Prof. Kapteyn, of Groningen, Holland, has been elected an Honorary Member of the Royal Irish Academy. Athenaeum.
The bishop's son sat for a neighbouring borough, and was created a baronet for his services, which were of the most straightforward kind.
People sometimes ask the idle question why the Pope does



224
Pronouns
not introducé this or that reform ? The true answer' is that a revolutionist is not the kind of nan who becomes a Pope, and that a man who is a Pope has not any wish to be a revolutionist. Dicey, Law of the Gonst. Lect. II p. 74.
2. Steele left College without taking a degree, and entered the Army as a cadet. Dennis, Age of Pope.
Lord Sydenham has tendered his resignation as a member of the Board. Times W. 5/1, '17.
As a hermit he had lived, as a her mi t he would die.
Wakeman, Introd. p. 42.
It seems hardly credible that we should have taken Ibsen for a realist, but we did. Times Lit. 9/3, '16.
3. In 1717 Sunderland became Prime Minister, and made Addison a Secretary of State. Dennis, Age of Pope p. 135.
1299. Before predicative nouns connected with the subject by means of the verb to turn the article is not used.
You don't mean to say you've turned socialist?
Sweet, Spoken English p. 88.
In 1222 we hear of a deacon being burned — he had turned Jew for the love of a Jewess. Maitland, Const. Hist. p. 509.
Clara, born long after the other chüdren, was a nervous, over-sensitive child, but handy and home-loving, she turned nurse at eleven, and nursed a brother through a two years' illness. Times Lit. 27/11, '16.
1300. When qualities of one person are contrasted we often find predicative nouns without an article. The reason, evidently, is that the adjectival function of the noun is prominent.
That the novelist is poet also is manifested in almost everything which he has written. Jerrold, Meredith p. 41. Mr. Boyd is Irishman first, crilic next.
Times Lit. 21/6, '18. Upon all principles I had to prefer seeing Graham more anxious to be husband to Barbara than curator to Pavis Court.
Cotes, Cinderella ch. 25.



Absence of the Article
225
Then came Bishop Kaye, who ordained me deacon and Priest- Hole, Mem. p. 134.
1301. Absence of the article before nouns expressing qualities of one person that are contrasted is very frequent before predicative nouns with as. In such cases the person is considered in two characters.
Mr. Andrew Lang makes a study of Dumas as writer and as man- Pilot, 18/7, 1903.
As courtier, office-holder, legislator, soldier, diplomatist, burgher of London, Ghaucer came into contact with every sort of person worth knowing, from king to apprentice.
He has played many parts. He has thrown himself into all with the full force of his fine intelligence and the vigour of his strong will. He has been soldier and sailor; he has been statesman and diplomatist; he has planned electioneering campaigns and Parliamentary combinations. His oratory bas been as wide of range as it has been picturesque in form and eloquent in delivery. He has appeared as social reformer and as moralist, as playwright and as artist. No man, however vast and however varied may be his gifts, can fill so many characters with entire success. Times Wf
The first volume shows us Story more as glamoured lover of Italy than as artist. Pilot, 9/1, 1904.
It is necessary to know something of the life and career of Alexander I. both as man and as ruler. Academy, 9/4, 1904.
The poet is not directly concerned with the objeetive appearances of existence. As artist, he may use them for his medium; he often does but, as prophet, he rises above and beyond them. Oxf. and Camb. Rev. no. 5.
1302. Sometimes the contrast is not expressed.
Towards Jeremy Taylor as theologian and bishop, Mr. Gosse is perhaps scarcely so genial and sympathetic (contrast: as writer)- Pilot, 14/5, 1904.
My knowledgê of him as preacher and reader is of a rather remote past (contrast: as writer, essayist). ib. Kruisinga, Handbook II. Accidence and Syntax. 2. 15



226
Pronouns
1303. This explains why the article is often absent in the headings of essays.
Burns as Musician. Mr. Meredith as Poet. Lord Salisbury as Journalist. Bagehot as Literary Critic. And in those same essays the article is used when the writer does not think of a contrasting quality, but compares the subject of his essay with other persons.
The author makes it plain that Burus's attainments as a practical musician were far greater than has been commonly supposéd. Academy, 17/10, 1903.
Overshadowed by his pre-eminent merits as a novelist, Mr. George Meredith's< poetry is to many of the public a hidden thing. ib- 3/10, 1903.
Lord Salisbury as Quarterly Reviewer scarce comes within this hurried purview of Lord Salisbury as a journalist.
ib. 29/8, 1903.
We wish to look upon him (viz. Bagehot) only as a critic of literature. Times Lit. 29/7, 15.
1304. Occasionally, however, we find the indefinite article when qualities are contrasted.
M. Olivier, as Prime Minister and subsequently as a member of the Academy, paid to the fame and memory of Lamartine the highest tribute ever bestowed on him as a writer and a man. The extraordinary popularity of Lamartine as a politician was followed by execration, and then by indifference.
Athenaeum.
1305. That predicative nouns connected with the subject by means of the verb to turn are regularly used without an article (1299) is probably because in such sentences two qualitie3 of one person are contrasted. For to turn in these cases means to change from one thing to another.
For the same reason we sometimes find no article after some other copulas.



Absence of the Article
227
In other words he (viz. Milton) commenced pamphleteer.
Birrell, Essay on Milton, p. 139. Were I ever to commence author I should take at once to my bed; it is the only place where my ideas run at all freely.
Barbara, p. 21. When George Herbert left off courtier and took orders, he burnt his earlier love-poetry. Mair, Eng. Lit.^p. 84.
1306. When to turn simply means to become the indefinite article is sometimes found; the article seems to be invariably used when the noun is qualified by an adjective, i.e. when its substantival function is clear.
It pained him much to perceive that one who had always been considered a frank, true-hearted young man, and who left the forest to fight in defence of his king, was now turned a traitor, and had joined the ranks of the enemy.
Marryat, Chüdren of the New Forest. Who would ever have thought that James Southwold would have turned a traitor! ju Why should he not turn an excellent husband? Would you never think the present made amends for the p,ast? Not if I turned a good fellow?
George Eliot, Süas Marner. Oignlty of 1307. In q/-adjuncts after dignüy, post, rank, title the noun often has no article, especially when the post, rank, etc. can refer to one person only (a), or does not suggest a number of persons (b). But after such nouns as trade (of) the indefinite article is usual (c).
a. Having thus accomplished his object as he believed, Sulla resigned the office of dictator (74 B. G.), retired to' private life and died not long after. Goodspeed, Hist. p. 341
The death of Mr. Alfred Austin leaves the office of Poet Laureate vacant. Quarterly Rev. July 1913.
In 1714, on the death of the Queen, Addison was once more in office, and held his old position of Irish Secretary.
Dennis, Age of Pope p. 132.



228
Pronouns
Mr. Bryce's rather sudden retirement from the post of British Ambassador at Washington will be learnt with wide regret. Times W. 15/11, '12.
b. Already the office of bishop had its aristocratie pretensions. Athen. 28/8, '15.
Gentlemen of the rank of Prince seem to abound.
ib. 7/10, '11.
The Gazette announces the promotion of the Prince of Wales to the rank of Lieutenant. Times W. 11/12, '14.
c. As a young man he followed several occupations, including that of a butcher. Times W. 31/1, '13.
Training institutions not only find it difficult to attract students, but also to keep them to the career of a teacher afterwards. Times Ed. S. 19/10, '16.
As sure as we are in this room, I shall be the Marquis of Farintosh. I offer you the coronet, the wealth, the position of a marchioness — of the first marchioness in England. Do you accept? Garvice, Staunch p. 136.
Upon the abdication of the Tsar he played the part of a counsellor and friend to the Provisional Government.
Times W. 11/1, '18.
In the same year 1715, he had assumed the character of a quaker in some of his tracts.
Camb. Hist. of Eng. Lit. IX, p. 19.
1308. In expressions like the digwi&y of etc., there is often no article when qualities of one person are contrasted.
Mr. Dick's book is a rehabilitation of Burns in the capacity of musican (contrast: poet). Academy.
And suppose, Mr. Saturday Reviewer — you censor morum,
you who piqué yourself upon your character of gentleman
as well as writer, Thackeray, Roundabout Papers.
Both in his character of gentleman and in his character of scholar, Fletcher looked down with disdain on common people.
Now the king. ... had promoted the only man in England, combining the gifts both of butcher and cook.
Blackmore, Lorna Doone ch. 72 p. 545.



Absence of the Article
229
Sort of, kind of 1309. When a class-noun is preceded by sort of, kind of it often has no article, clearly because sort of, kind.of are rather adjuncts to the following noun than headwords to the following prepositional adjunct. The pronoun (or article) preceding sort or kind is therefore treated as qualifying the noun in the prepositional adjunct. We also find this construction with words of similar meaning, such as species, manner, type, and also in the case of other words. See 820 ff., 1116, 1256, and 1453 ff.
It gave Felix Freeland a sort of faint excitement and pleasure to notice this. Galsworthy, Freelands p. 11.
If you lived in the country, old man, you would not ask that sort of question. ib. ch. 6 p. 64.
A sort of queer prescience. ib. 79.
A sort of stunned excitement. ib. ch. 8, p. 89.
She went to see what sort of day it was.
Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 8.
It was a species of small hall, somewhat resembling a chaPeI- ib. ch. 24.
The wind, which only broke in puffs and draughts into that deep well of building, tossed the light of the candle to and fro- Stevenson, Dr. Jekyll p. 78.
1310. The original analysis of this construction is still possible. Hence we also find an indefinite article before the prepositional noun.
He is a good sort of a fellow after all.
Trollope, Last Chronicle ch. 31 p. 272.
Don't forget it's the most sensible kind of a house you've ever seen. Bennett, Card ch. 8 § 6.
To know what kind of a navy we need we must first know what foreign policy we are pursuing and what is our relation to the other powers. Daily News 16/2, '12.
1311. The article is generally not used before a nounsubject when ever, never qualify it. In this case ever is



230
Pronouns
equivalent to any, never to no. Note that never, although it opens the sentence, does not necessarily causé inversion: it can be looked upon as a word-modifier as well as a sentencemodifier.
Never master had a more faithful servant. p Never was woman more determined to make the best of a bad job. Galsworthy, Freelands, ch. 25 p. 312.
The servant.... burst into loud sobs, yelling that Sophia had been the most excellent mistress that servant ever had.
Bennett, Old W. Tale IV ch. 4, § 4, p. 537. If ever man had an easy task, this of ours') ought to be. Against the face of all the facts, and the clearest charge which judge had ever given, the jury brought in a simultaneous verdict of Not Guilty. Lamb, Essay on Roast Pig.
I am plucked as clean as ever was pigeon.
Trollope, Three Glerks.
1312. When, in this case, the article is used the function of ever and never seems to be more clearly adverbial.
Never was a man so overrated by the world and by himself. Never was a woman more unhappy in her lovers than this pathetic Queen of Scots.
Indefinite Pronouns
All
1313. When used as an adjective, all expresses quantity or number before a singular abstract or material noun or a plural class-noun. It may be used with or without defining words, such as articles or possessive pronouns. See 1341.
We have lost all tracé of him.
All the gold in the world would not be enough.
1) i. e. this task of ours.



All
231
Moreover, why should Stella have all the excitement of going abroad and living abroad while her brother plodded to school in dull, ordinary London? Sinister Street p. 159.
All men must die.
Theognis bids his friend be as much as possible all things to all men. Symonds, Greek Poets. Oxf. Dict
They had watched all his motions and lectured him on all his youthful follies. Macaulay, Hist. ib.
1314. The use is adjectival in examples like the following, where all qualifies the pronoun (a). When all is followed by an adjunct with of, the adjunct is really the headword as far as meaning goes. See 2114.
a. They are all very contented with their presents.
b. All pf us have said so at times. Oxf. Dict It is a curious fact that all of Henry's wives can tracé
their descent from this king (viz. Edward I).
Quoted Poutsma p. 1022.
1315. The use of all before proper names and singular class-nouns is literary. Colloquial English would use wfu>le (the whole of Etruria, the whole world, or year).
All Etruria and Latium were overrun. Goodspeed.
In the Museum was the library, containing 532,000 manuscripts collected from all the world *). Goodspeed.
An impatience of everything familiar fretted me through all the changing year. Gissing, Ryecroft (Summer H).
Then the lantern went out and all the observatory was black. Wells, Country p. 63.
But the whole of this theory seems false to me.
Wells, Country p. 100.
1316. In negative expressions all is sometimes equivalent to any whatever.
1) In colloquial English all the world would refer to people, i.e. world would be taken in its collective sense.



232
Pronouns
Beyond all question we have never had sufficiënt unity of control. Times, W. 16 11, '17.
To deny all connexion, etc. At all costs, in all weathers.
1317. When used as a noun-pronoun all refers to things (a). It is generally qualified by an adjective adjunct or adjective clause. See 1085 f. The use of all as a neuter nounpronoun without a qualifying adjunct is chiefly literary (6). It occurs in spoken English as a predicate and in some standing expressions.
a. I know all about it.
All I know is that he refused to come.
"He came on business" — that was all that anybody knew.
Crawford, Lonely Parish ch. 1. The coal crisis still overshadows all else. Daily News, 1912. She informed him of all which she had learned from her brother. Mark Lemon, Wait for the End, T. p. 165.
b. After the Revolution of 1689, however, all was changed.
Sefton Delmer, Eng. Lit. p. 94. He had seen all, while selling a kodak to a young lady.
Bennett, Old W. Tale IV ch. 1 § 3. e. You won't listen to me now. Very well. But don't come to me for help when you go wrong, that's all. Grasp all, lose all. For good and all.
1318. The noun-pronoun all may also refer to persons (a). The use of all as a class-noun, too, is rather literary (b). The plural aüs is only occasional (c).
a. It was observed by all that the duke was especially attentive to youg Mr. Frank Gresham.
Trollope, Framley Pars. ch. 8.
b. And this girl — his ewe-lamb — his all, was she fair?
Bulwer, Gaxtons IJl ch. 3.
c. An inn in Marlborough has the sign 'The Five Alls,'



All
233
They are — a king, with the motto, 'I govern all'; a bishop^ with 'I pray for all'; a lawyer, 'I plead for all'; a soldier, 'I fight for all'; a labourer, 'I pay for all.'
1319. When all refers to a noun (or pronoun) mentioned in the sentence it may seem to be an adjunct to the following word. In her right hand, all seamed with black lines, she held a cup of coffee. Bennett, Old W. Tale IV ch. 2 § 3 p. 465. Here all may seem to qualify seamed, and to mean oompletely. This use is probably the origin of the purely adverbial use, as in the following cases1). I am all right. Things are all wrong.
If it is all the same to you I'd rather not come.
All too slowly for Sheila the supper dragged its course.
Stephen Mc. Kenna, Sheila Intervenes ch. 14. It is also adverbial in the combination for all 'in spite of.' On for all as a conjunction, see 1698.
Mr. Howe, for all his documentary method, is always on Hazlitt's side, when he can be. Times Lit. 14/9, '22.
^ 1320. When all but is used adverbially, meaning almost, it is a compound in spite of the spelling (a); but the pronoun 'all does not necessarily form a compound with a following but (6). a. The senseless routine of mechanic exercise was in itself all but unendurable to me. Gissing, Byecroft (Spring XIX). Even as an example these expeditions were all but fruitless.
Davis, Med. Europe p. 211. All but all men have to look back upon beginnings of life deformed and discoloured by necessity, accident, wantonness*). — Gissing, ib. Xï.
1) The adverbial or semi-adverbial function of all is sometimes responuble for a deviatie* in the wordorder; see Wordorder (Attributive Pronoun,).
2) This example shows clearly that [olbat] is not thought of as consisting of aU and but.



234
Pronouns
b. The tyranny of party-spirit has bereft it (viz. Parliament) of nearly every opportunity of independent decision, and has laid the heavy shackles of obedience to the party whips, on both sides, on all but the most resolute of private members. Every man 29/11, '12.
Any
1321. The adjective any suggests no matter who or which or what. In declarative sentences, if affirmative, it is always strongly stressed; in this function it may be compared with each and every (1341 ff.). In other sentences it may be either stressed or not; unstressed any in interrogative and conditional sentences shows close affinity to some (see 1416).
They were awaiting Mr. Gibson's return, which might be expected at any minute. Gaskell, Wives III p. 35.
They agree that our men bear themselves with a calm and dauntless courage unsurpassed in the annals of any army.
Times W. 29/3, '18.
The very rough weather binders any kind of operation on a considerable scale. ib. 2/2, '17.
When he comes here, he sits as glum as a monkey. If I ask him what wine he'U have, he says: "Thanks, any wine."
Galsworthy, Man ot Property II ch. 2.
Now what we miss in Dr. Ward's book is any attempt towards this. Times Lit. 21/12, '17.
No one, therefore, can really study any particular period of history unless he knows a great deal about what preceded it and what came after it.
Gardiner and Mullinger, Introd. p. XXII.
"We will all help you," said the chüdren, starting off, much pleased to be any use. Rutland, The Oak Ghest p. 36.
If any delusion of that kind was prevalent in Germany, the voting of Monday in Ganada must have ended it.
Times W. 21/12, '17.
1322. Any is also used emphatically to express quantity.



Any
235
Voiced stops cannot be maintained for any length of time.
Sweet.
If any doubt remained, after the Prime Minister had spoken, of the real gravity of the moment, Mr. Asqirith must have' removed it. - Times W. 12/4, '18.
If we are to face the future with any confidence after this exhausting war, we must face it as an educated people.
Times Ed. S. 5,10, '15.
1323. Any can be used substantively to denote persons; in this case it has a plural meaning (a). It can also refer to a noun or pronoun that follows as part of an o/-adjunct. The noun may be singular in the casè of abstract and material nouns (ó); it is plural in the case of class-nouns, whether denoting persons or things, and any itself is also plural,, seldom singular, in meaning in this case (c). See 1417 ff. on any one.
a. "I cannot say who did it. I did not." — «You! Oh, Phineas! The world must be mad when any can believe it."
Trollope, Phineas Redux. Do any forget who have ever known those blissful hours in the groves and in the meadows by the stream?
Hole, Memories p. 217. In the glow of satisfaction she could not bear to punish any by keeping them in ignorance of the joyful news.
Pett Ridge, Garland ch. 11. "Mark Rutherford's" lamented death brings home to us how rarely any of our novelists treat with distinction or spiritual sincerity the life of religious emotion.
Nation, 12,7, '13.
b. It had become necessary to give Tabby — now nearly eighty years of age — the assistance of a girl. Tabby relinquished any of her work with great reluctance.
Gaskell, Life of C. Brontë, ch. 15.
c. Bookbuyers can examine any af Mr. T. Fisher Unwin's books at their local bookseller's.



236
Pronouns
"You'd better go and look up some of your Bohemian friends," he advised severely. "They are probably all hanging about Chelsea still. It's not likely that any of them is farther on with his art than he was two years ago."
Sinister Street p. 756.
1324. In conclusion, any is used as an adverb of degree, especially to modify comparatives and adjectives or adverbs preceded by too. See below on none.
So when he (viz. a dog) came to the house, he scratched at the door, and said: "bow wowl" for he could not speak any plainer. Sweet, Spoken English p. 48.
On some occasions troops of the Prussian Guard have not behaved any too well in the fighting on the Somme.
Times W.
Both
1325. Both means 'the one as well as the other'. It may be used without a noun (or pronoun) to which it refers. When used absolutely, both is sometimes qualified by an adjunct with of (a). See 13145.
It may also be used in apposition to a noun or pronoun (6) or in attributive relation to a noun or pronoun (c).
a. Both were Tories: both were men of hot temper and strong prejudices.
Both of us often talk to the boys.
I undoubtedly lay claim to both of these characteristics.
b. We are both men of the world. The brothers might both have come. They seem both very obstinate.
They were both of them rather like race-horses.
Bennett, Old W. T. I ch. 1.
The men have both gone.
c. Both my friends saw it = My friends both saw it. ■ They both speak of death.
In Russia it is common to give both dates.



Certain
237
The papers found in the strongbox had converted them both to the true faith.
I have attained my ideal: I am a roadmender, some say stone-breaker. Both titles are correct, but the one is more pregnant than the other. Michael Fairless, Roadmender I.
When both ia used adverbially (see 1319) it has and for its correlative; see Sentence-Strueture (Doublé Sentences).
Upon the small details of language both the psychology and history of speech depend.
Morris, Principles and Methods of Latin Syntax.
Certain
1326. Certain approaches the nature of a pronoun when it is used to indicate persons or things that the speaker does not choose to identify or specify any further.
Everything that is natural is, within certain limits, right. If a certain quantity of beef be given for a certain quantity of corn....
With proper names it implies that the person so indicated is presumed to be unknown except by name = 'a certain person called', or 'calling himself; hence often conveying a slight shade of disdain or disrespect.
Mrs. Raggett brought with her a certain Miss Lucy.
1327. Certain is also used as a plural noun, especially in literary English.
No wonder that the reviewers have been non-plussed; that certain of them have given utterance to judgements inept enough. Edinb. Rev. April 1908.
In collecting the following poems I have to thank the editors and proprietors of the periodicals in which certain of them have appeared for permission to reclaim them.
Thomas Hardy, Poems, Preface.



238
Pronouns
Each
f328. Each refers to the members of a group individually; it has a strong distributive force1). Hence it is preferred to every in referring to the members of a numerically definite group. Compare 1341.
Each can be used as a noun (a), or as an adjective (6).
a. There was no hesitancy, I believe, on the part of the officers as to the side each should take.
Capt. Mahan, quoted Athen. 8/2, 1908. Each of these (two) women instantly perceived that since they had parted a change had taken place in the other; neither was aware that the other noticed the change in herself.
Allen, Mettle.
A poem, a novel, a lecture on the art of writing, each imposes its different task. Times Lit. 30/3, '16.
Two cities share the Empire of Imagination, Babyion and Rome; each has no rival but the other. Times Lit. 11/3,'15.
Each of the four lectures has a definite subject, though each forms an essential part of a coherent argument.
Athenaeum 21/9, '12.
Mrs. Woodward questioned her daughter but little, but she understood well the nature of each, and could nearly read their thoughts. "■* Trollope, Three Clerks p. 162.
b. Each student had a separate room, and all had their meals together in a common hall. Rutherford, Autobiog. p. 12.
These are questions of taste that must be decided by the individual judgment of each reader. Times Lit. 24/5, '18.
No man demands what he desires; each man demands what he fancies he can get. Chesterton, What's Wrong, p. 18.
The Old English historian Bede tells us that different tribes came over at intervals, one after another, and that each tribe established a different dominion of its own.... Each of the small states so formed maintained a sturdy spirit of independence against the others. Delmer, Eng. Lit. p. 3.
1) This distributive force is often' indicated by some such word as separate, of its own, etc.



Either
239
1329. Each is exceptionally used with the anaphoric prop-word one. This use of each one should be distinguished from the independent each one.
It was his natural gift to be able to state clearly point by point, argue out each one in turn and pass on to the next.
Patterson, Compton p. 66. He was conscious of a thousand odours in the air, each one connected with a thousand thoughts, and hopes.
Dickens, Ghristmas Garol st. 2.
Either, Neither
1330. Either and neither usually refer to two!). Either means one or the other. Neither means 'not the one nor the other'. They may be used as adjectives (a) or as nouns (b).
a. The question whether it is so or not might be interesting, but there is next to no evidence either way.
Stubbs, Early Engl. Hist. p. 4.
In some literary journal a hack was defined lately as a man who writes politics on either or any side indifferently.
There, too, it is impossible to predict the issue. Either candidate may win. Times W. 11/5, '17.
b. Coincidences have been pointed out between (Shakespeare's) Richard H and Daniêl's Civil Wars 2»d edition, 1595: if either borrowed from the other, the borrower was probably Daniël.
Jowett was a great Hellenist is one sense and Bywater was a great Hellenist in quite another. Neither cared very much for the aims and ideals of the other, but each was a master in his own sphere. Times Lit. 13/4, '17.
1331. Either and neither are occasionally used with reference to more than two, probably owing to want of clear thinking.
1) With reference to more than two the pronoun any is used for either; for neither the adjective-pronoun no, and the noun-pronoun none are used.



240
Pkonouns
She has style, talent, and money, and in the strict sense of these words Phillis has neither.
Hocking, Awakening of Anthony Weir ch. H.
1332. Either is also used in the meaning of 'one as well as the other'. It thus approaches the meaning of both, from which it differs by taking the members of the group singly. Either is very common in this meaning in the phrase on either. side, and in some other expressions, but apart from these its use in this meaning,is rather literary. ;
He looked over me and at me and on either side of me, without the slightest sign of seeing me. Wells, Country p. 88.
The ammunition columns on either flank provide us with plenty of amusement. Punch 14/11, '17.
But while combining in some degree the excellence of either (viz. of Whitefield and Charles Wesley), he (viz. John Wesley) possessed qualities in which both were utterly deficiënt.
Green, Short Hist. p. 738.
"Here, come along," Richard beckoned to him savagely. Til be back in five minutes, uncle," he nodded coolly to either. Meredith, R. Feverel.
If any rational reader puts to himself the question, "Is it likely that people would ever behave like this?" or the question, "Is it desirable that people should behave like this?" he will probably answer "No" to either.
J. G. Squire, Observer 1/5, 21.
1333. The combination of either with a possessive pronoun is rare; see 1100 and 1339.
Gacti were planted on its either side.
R. Haggard, The Holy Flower.
1334. Either is also used as an adverb, to emphasize a negative').
• 1) 'Neither in this function is colloquial rather than literary.



Either
241
My first quarter at Lowood seemed an age, and not the golden age either. G. Brontë, J. Eyre ch. 7
There was once a time, and not so long ago either, when gentle people were so gentle, that they could not (with the countenance of their families) enter upon any other profession than the Army, the Navy, or the Church.
Cannan, Corner ch. 1. «Humph!" said my lord, staring at him. «That's your opinion, is it?" And he was not displeased ber- Burnett, Fauntleroy ch. 6.
1335. Either and neither are very commonly used as coordinating conjunetions. See also the sections on so in the chapter on Personal Pronouns.
If, however, they won't make the child either a soldier, a sailor, a clergyman, or a barrister, what on earth do they mtend it to grow up into? Sketch, 8/12, 1909
Neither he nor his friend said anything more on the way
Dickens, Chuzzlewit
Either and 1336. The following quotations show the diffeBoth rence between either and both.
Our critics, internal and external (being mostly anonymous they may be either, and are probably both) are ill-informed
But if the great Guillemard had stopped to live up to this sporting reputation, he would assuredly have laid one or other of us by the heels, and either would have been tantamount to both.
Whatever was ridiculous or odious in either increased the scorn and aversion which the multitude feit for both.
Macaulay, History.
1337. When either means one and the other it differs very little from each. See 1332.
The woods on each side of the avenue leading from Abinger Common to the hÜl are marked out for felling also.
Times W. 29/3, '18. Krüisinga, Handbook II. Acddence and Syntaoc. 2. 16



242
Pronouns
Then we came to a wide gateway.... There were massive pillars on each side of the gate; and on the top of each pillar there was a stone dragon — the crest of the family the estate belonged to. Sweet, Spoken Engl. p. 56.
Every
1338. Every refers to the members of a group one by one. It has a collective rather than a distributive force, but neither of these meanings is strongly present. The group referred to is often quite indefinite with regard to number. It is always used adjectively before a noun (not a pronoun).
Oxford is a favourite haunt of birds at every season of the year, and most of all in summer. I am feeling better in every way.
Every few months he saw something new to wonder at and admire. Burnett, Fauntleroy ch. 3.
1339. Every is occasionally used in combination with another, usually a possessive, pronoun. See 894 and 1338.
Religion, then, in the Middle Ages played a greater part in man's life than it does now. It was entwined with his every action public and private. Wakeman, Introd. p. 178.
So you may sometimes see a little, grave boy walking through a field, unwatched as he believes, suddenly fling his feet and his head every which way.
Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 10 p. 113 (ib. ch. 22 p. 263).
1340. Every is not infrequently used when no number is thought of. This is sometimes disapproved of, as is shown by the last of the following quotations.
There is every reason to believe that the other Powers will take the same view. Times W. 191, '17.
There is no excuse for the use of every in expressions like •every assistance," "every success," "every confidence," when it is so easy to say "all possible assistance," "complete success," "full confidence." Times Lit. 15/6, '16.



Every
243
All, Each, 1341. All before a plural class-noun differs Every from each and every in that it takes the members of a group collectively. Both each and every take the members ot the group separately.
_ M>ery differs from each in that it does not so strictlv individuahze the members of a group. The distributive force of every is sometimes almost, if not quite, gone, so that everytkmgr every one are interchangeable with all, but as a rule the difference in meaning between every and all is clear enough.
All works on this conslantly progressive branch of arcbaeology are necessarily ephemeral. Each adds to and corrects what preceded it; each wants to be corrected and partly superseded by its successors. Times Lit. 24/2 M6
A ll the houses in that block had been built by people of Enghsh descent near the close of the eighteenth or at the beginning of the nineteenth century. Each was set apart from each by lawns, yards and gardens, and further screened üy shrubs and vines in accordance with old English custom. rp. A»en, Mettle of the Pasture.
The guiding idea of the four Emperors who come before us is the recovery of Constantinople, and throughout all their military enterprises and diplomatic negotiations they never lost sight of the ultimate goal. They were all men of ability each in his own way. Athenaeum, 25/1, '13.
1 am by myself here all day and every day.
Anna of the Five Towns ch. 12. As there are anomalieS in every history, so there is a history for every anomaly. Our constilution is full of such so are our time-honoured customs, our laws and liturgy our temtonal divisions, our language written and spoken. Each ot these is a growth of a thousand years, and every irreguJanty m each has a history. Stubbs, Early Engl. Hist p 1
Every vowel can have its pitch raised or lowered by varvine the length of the vocal chords. But each vowel has besides an inherent pitch of its own. Sweet



244
Pronouns
The dignity of our professión can in the end only be asserted by the independent study by each teacher of child personality. Every teacher can contribute original research towards the building-up of educational theory, for every child is unique. Teacher's World, 11/3, '14.
Every volume is absolutely new, and specially written for the Library. There are no reprints.
Every volume is published at ls. net in cloth, and 2s. 6d. net in leather. Each runs to about 256 pages, with illustrations where needed, and contains a Bibliography as an aid to further study.
Every subject is of living and permament interest; and the books are written for the general reader as well as the student.
Each volume is complete and independent; but the series has been carefully planned as a whole to form a comprehensive library of modern knowledge covering the chief subjects in History and Geography, Literatnre and Art, Science, Social Science, Philosophy, and Religion.
Points about The Home University Library.
1342. Occasionally each and every are used without any difference of meaning, perhaps to avoid the repetition of the pronoun. Sometimes they are combined for the sake of emphasis.
In Germany there is one periodical for every 7500 inhabitants, while in the United Kingdom there is one to each 9000. Giving figures to prove each and every statement.
Pett Ridge, Garland ch. 13.
All, aiy, every 1343. There is also reason to compare all (before a plural) and any. The difference between these is that all is more collective. In some cases any and every do not differ much; they are sometimes combined. When qualifying a singular noun all and every differ quite clearly.
But you must be on your guard against the scandal-mongers and collectors of anecdotes, and worst of any, the critic of our Galleries of Art. Meredith, Amazing Marriage, ch. 1.



No
245
Even Father André, an educated man who should have known better, was willing to believe any accusation, however preposterous, against the abominable invaders.
Buchanan, That Winter Night ch. 3.
We shall be prudent to assume that, as more experience is gained, attacks may be attempted on any night when the atmospheric conditions are favourable. Times W. 5/10, '17.
Tamlin pursued pleasure upon any and every path.
Vachell, Quinneys'.
Every day and all day and always I was conscious of my unborn child. Hall Caine, Woman eh. 84.
No 1344. ivo ia used as an adjective with the approiimate meaning 'not any' (a).
When qualifying a noun with an attributive adjunct it often implies that an adjunct of an opposite meaning would be more appropriate (ó); in a similar way it is used before a predicative noun to denote the opposite of what the noun indicates or a bad specimen of the class (c).
a. For a hundred years after Chaucer's death there was no great writer in England. Delmer, Eng. Lit. p. 29.
Indeed, to buy a cheap thing is an extravagance, for it is worn out in no time, and the washerwoman hastens its end.
Times W. 1/2, '18.
No thoroughfare.
There is no accounting for tastes.
In the West kings reign but do not rule. Prince William must be prepared to rule, for the Albanians will have no roy faineant. Times W. 6/3, '14.
The Prince will certainly be fettered by no arbitrary or unreasonable restrictions, and he will have the opportunity of leading a free and natural life as an undergraduate. Times W.
b. But he was no great analyser of his own motives, and was mistaken, as I have said. Gaskell, North and South ch. 29.
The task of welding these various bodies into a homogeneous whole was no easy one. Times Ed. S. April 1915.



246
Pronouns
No little interest attachés to the report of the model cottages which we learn from a contemporary are being built to the order of Mr. Rowntree, of York. Everyman 5/9, '13.
Of one capital fact regarding her subject Mrs. Meakin will convince any reader: that Hannah More was no narrow-minded bigot. Athenaeum 23/12, '11.
It at once became evident that they had come to the conference in no spirit of compromise. Wakeman, Introd. p. 374.
He was certainly a writer of great polish but of no profundity «). Times Lit. 12/1, 22.
c. He was no fooi. Hichens, Ambition ch. 18 p. 207.
He was very pleasant, talked away for about two hours. However, my wife took the greatest dislike to him, and even went so far as to say he was no gentleman.
Sweet, Spoken Engl, p. 78.
He (King Louis X of France) was no general; his attack on Egypt was foredoomed to failure. Davis, Med. Europe p. 221.
1345. The function of no mentioned under a in the preceding section is to negativo a noun; in b it negatives an adjective. The case under c is really identical with b, on account of the adjectival character of the predicative noun. Thus he is no soldier means hè is not soldierlike.
This use of no before a noun without an adjective in other functions than as a predicate is less common.
Mr. Gritchlow put the tray on a white-clad chest of drawers near the door, and then he shut the door with no ceremony.
Old W. Tale I ch. 2 § 1 p. 37.
No and not 1346. No in the meaning not any, not a is possible only when it cannot be understood in the meaning de8cribed under b and e. This explains the use of not in the following quotations.
1) It naturally makes no real difference that no precedes the noun in the adjunct inStead of what is the headword.



No and Not
247
Ham has been done by those who have spoken of his (viz. Tennyson's) 'philosophy,' whether to exalt or belittle itHe was not a philosopher, any more than Wordsworth was, or Browning or Meredith. Bradley, Reaction p, 7.
Augustine was not a Gregory in wide statesmanship, a Columba in missionary stedfastness. Wakeman, Introd. p. 18.
He was not an ill-tempered man.
Jane Austen, Emma p. 89.
Malthus, Ricardo and Mill were not historians, but they and less orthodox economists have compelled historians to modify and expand their conception of history.
Times Lit. 25/9, '19.
* 1347. Sometimes not a is used because the article has its numerical meaning.
Not a murmur was heard from the soldiers as they stood, at their death parade. Van Neck, Easy Engl. Prose.
Not a dog would bark at him throughout the whole neighbourhood. W. Irving, Sketch-Book p. 34. (Compare: The echoes repeated his whistle and shout, but no dog was to be seen. ib. p. 42).
K 1348. In non-predicative use there is generally not much difference between no and not.
One of the most important subjects is the desire for education now displayed by a not inconsiderable number of Turkish women. Athen. 7/10, '11.
Here a not inconsiderable number means a rather considerable number. No inconsiderable number would only be a little stronger and convey: a very considerable number.
1349. In all the above cases no and not have been compared as word-modifiers. Not is also a sentence-modifier, as in the following quotation.
In spite of the rather misleading advertisement the book has not a separate introduction. Athen. 22/2, 1908.



248
Pronouns
•O350. Before comparatives in -er, no is used as a wordmodifier, not as a sentence-modifier. The patiënt is no better to-day. There was no longer any room for doubt. He is not poorer than his brother but he certainly is not well off.
In the following quotation no negatives the sentence, hut the context makes the meaning quite clear.
When Bismarck learnt Russian for diplomatic purpose, he declared that it was no harder than Greek and much more useful. Times Lit. 31/8, '16.
/1351. As a consequence of this function of no before a comparative we regularly find it when the opposite is intended to be expressed. Thus no more than generally means as little (few) as; no less than is usually equivalent to as much (many) as (os). Sometimes however, superiority or inferiority is only denied in order to express equality (6).
a. The Place Blanche and the Boulevard de Glichy were no more lively than the Iesser streets and squares.
Bennett, Old W. Tale Hl ch. 6 § 4. He 's no more a lord than I am.'
(This is what) Rhodès had in his eye when he proposed this plan of securing that the scholar x) should be no less manly than replete with book-learning. Athen. 1/3, '13.
I saw him no later than last Tuesday.
Yet it was no less delightful than strange to her to find a delicate sympathy; an intuitive comprehension of herfeelings.
Peard, Madame p. 128.
b. The chances are that the empties (i. e. empty houses) in Lewisham are no more than they are in any other borough.
Standard 22/5, 1906.
^ 1352. Before comparatives with more we find not as a wordmodifier because no might suggest the meaning just explained.
1) i. e. the holder of a Rhodes scholarship.



No
249
It is not more readable to-day than the same author's Lady
Juliana MandeviUe, or her translations from the French,
that is to say it is not readable at all. A. Dobson.
The changes in the religious life of England brought about by the Norman Gonquest were not less important than those subsequently due to the Reformation. Wakeman, Introd. p. 93.
He had been making a fooi of himself in another quarter of Paris, and he had descended to the Pension Frensham as a place where he could be absolutely sure of spending not more than twelve francs a day.
Bennett, Old. W. Tale IV ch. 1 § 1.
1353. Both no and not are often possible because it is sometimes indifferent whether we use a word-modifier or a sentence-modifier.
He drinks no beer. He does not drink beer.
1354. No is also used as a sentence-word to deny or contradict a preceding affirmative question or statement i).
Have you seen him? — No.
He was born in 1870. — No, in 1872.
1355. No is further used to confirm a preceding negative question or statement. Note that hardly, only, etc. also make a sentence negative.
Haven't you seem him? — No.
She had only sons, I think? - No; only Mr. Osborne and Mr. Roger Hamley. She had a daughter once — 'Fanny.' Sometimes, in her Ulness, she used to call me 'Fanny'.
Gaskell, Wives I ch. 19 p. 325.
He was not in time. - No, but it did not matter.
It's only an eighteen minutes' run. — No, that's all.
1) In this section and in the three that follow no cannot be called a pronoun. It seems advisable, however, not to make a feüsh of system in grammar.



250
Peonouns
1356. No is used as a sentence-word with a rising intonation, to express interest in a preceding negative statement.
We have never been to the races. — No? All the more reason I should try and make the day pleasant for you.
1357. Both no and not are used in alternative questions with if or whether.
You will soon find whether I teil you the truth or no.
Hawthorne, Wonder-book p. 17.
She would glance at him then, with a special loving doubtfulness, at a loss as to whether or no he had designed to compliment her. Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 25 p. 308.
She could hardly teil if she should like it or not.
Gaskell, Wives II p. 136.
It is their duty to find out by following the chüdren to their homes, whether or not the advice of the doctor has been taken. Times Ed. S. 19/10, '16.
The question that agitated him now was whether or not to take Nedda with him. Galsworthy, Freelands ch 20.
One,
1358. The numeral one, apart from its function to denote number, may be used:
1. as an adjective.
2. as a noun.
3. as a prop-word.
One as an 1359. The numerical meaning 'one, single, Adjective only' is clear when one is used after pronouns, including the article (a). Sometimes it means 'individual' (6).
a. The one real danger is that the Government wül miss their opportunity for want of a definite plan.
Times W. 11/5, '17. (This idea) is one which occurs in many primitive societies and is peculiar to no one branch of the human race.
Davis, Med. Europe p. 97.



One as an Adjective
251
Her letters have to-day fifty readers for every one that can be claimed for the wife of Louis XIV. Times Lit. 29/10, '14.
Next to the Duke of Northumberland's Northumbrian dominions, the Duke of Gleveland's Durham estate is probably the largest owned by any one great proprietor in any single county.
Escott, England I, 58.
In its origin it was popular in the widest sense — not restricted to any one rank or class. Ker, Eng. Lit. p. 81.
The rougb hand of heathen conquest swept away every English kingdom büt one, and that one was Wessex.
Constit. Essays p. 11.
b. To anyone familiar with the text-books issued from any one publishing house it is very interesting to observe the way in which certain illustrations are used and re-used.
Times Ed. S. 22/5, '19.
1360. The numerical meaning is somewhat weakened when one is used without a preceding pronoun; it is then equivalent to 'certain.'
On one occasion, the noble family of the Fabii offered to proceed against them and conduct the war.
Goodspeed, History. At Paris, just after dark one gusty evening in the autumn of 18—, I was enjoying the twofold luxury of meditation and a meerschaum, in company with my friend, C. Auguste Dupin.
Poe in Select Short Stories II p. 78.
1361. One is similarly used before proper names of perBons, with a title or without, less often before class-nouns denoting persons. In this case one is explained by the Oxford Dict. as the headword with the noun in apposition. But it seems to the present writer that the coDstruction is not generally understood that way. One is usually weakstressed here, and is not followed by a pause; it is rather to be considered as an adjective, although its function is closely related to the substantival use treated in the next section.



252
Pronouns
For a short time the boy was employed by a solicitor in New Square, one Mr. Molloy. Forster-Gissing.
He died in 1859, leaving the property to one Ann Duncan.
He would perhaps look in on the caricatures at the English Gallery, and visit one duchess in Mayfair, concerning the George Richard Memorial. Galsworthy, Freelands, ch. 1.
One as an 1362. One is used as a noun-pronoun
Antecedent Pronoun meaning approximately someone. It is more limited in meaning, however, because it is only used to refer to a person as one of a class, not to a definite person; it is always followed by an adjunct or clause to denote the class. It is, therefore, an antecedent or determinative pronoun; compare 1189 f.
One of really superior powers cannot escape these better moments and the remorse that they bring.
Morley, Gompromise p. 90. Mrs. Gihson had some old grudges of her own against him, but she was not one to retain angry feelings.
Gaskell, Wives II, 78. An examination of the subject by one somewhat more thoughtful would be very welcome. Pilot 28/9, 1901.
At the Spa tavern he gave his shoulder to the door, with the manner of one accustomed to the task.
Pett Ridge, Garland ch. 4. For one who can read between the lines there is much that is melancholy in Mr. Tozer's Chronicle.
Times Lit. 14/9, '16. It was edited by one, Wilkie, who took liberties with the text. Pilot.
But one could not be substituted in the following passages for some one:
This was Arkwight, the explorer, a man who had been lost in African jungles during the last five years, the very creature for Brun's purpose. Here was some one who,



One as a Pronoun
253
knowing nothing about Art, -would listen all the more readily to Brun's pronouncement upon it.
Walpole, Duchess of Wrexe I ch. 1. I am unable to look it up because I have lent that volume to someone who has never sent it back ').
Wells, Country p. 444. Evidently the Sunday s) had someone at home who had not learnt the art of speech in the Five Towns.
Bennett, Clayhanger I ch. 1 § 2.
1363. When one is used as a determinative pronoun it may be defined by a simple adjective. This must, naturally, follow, for adjectives always follow a pronoun (see Wordorder)
He looked like one dead.
Bennett, Old W. Tale Hl ch. 7 § 1.
One as an Indefinite 1364. One is used as a weak-stressed Personal Pronoun form of any one, but it includes the speaker himself. In this meaning it is specially used when the speaker applies a general statement to a definite (often his own) case.
The book reads like a labour of love, and one is unfeignedly sorry to turn the last page. Athenaeum 10/10, 1908.
The notes, though far from exhaustive, contain some admirable anecdotes, which one is apt to overlook when bidden away in small type. Athenaeum 22/2, 1908.
"How very strange," observed Brosy in his beautifully correct German as he dropped into a vacant chair at our table, "that you should be related to the Nieberleins." —
"One is always related to somebody," I replied; and marvelled at my own intelligence. —
"And how odd that we should meet again here."
1) I cannot vérify this quotation because I have lent the book to someone who has never sent it back.
2) Nickname for a boy.



254
Pronouns
"One is always meeting again on an island if it is small enough." Eliz. in Rügen.
One is so weary of the machine-made historical novel that it is with impatience that one often turns the pages.
Athen. 5/12, 1908.
1365. Sometimes one is nothing hut another way of saying I; thus passim in:Benson's Thread of Gold. Hence also one wishes in the special meaning that I wish has, when followed by a dependent clause (with a verb in past tense).
Here and there a name is missing which might have been included... Again one wishes that Mr. Graves had been able to accord to other poets... the adequacy of representation that he has given to Ceiriog. Athenaeum.
1366. One meaning any one (1364) has an emphatic and reflexive form oneself and a genitive one's. See 1056 ff. In its meaning someone (1362) the pronoun one agrees with the personal and possessive pronouns of the third person.
The great usefulness of such studies as those given to us in these books lies perhaps in this—that they put one in a position from which one can set in order one's impressions of their subject, and revise one's previous estimates.
1367. Occasionally one meaning 'any one' is in concord with the personal and possessive pronouns of the third, less often of the second and first person (we, you). This is generally disapproved of.
Were one to judge humanity from novels, he would conclude that in the relations between man and woman there is rarely a case in which the man does not gain everything and the woman forfeit all. Academy, 21/5, 1910.
Another secret of a good complexion is the use of cold water. If one drinks much of it she will be surprised to see, in a few weeks, the difference it has made to her looks.
Daily Mail.



One as a Noun
255
You know, my dear, if one esteemed such a person very much, and were quite sure, without any doubt, that he liked you in return Meredith, Harrington ch. 17, p. 272.
There is of course always, even to very happy people, a certain gentle melancholy in going back to a place where one dreamed the dreams, hoped the hopes of our early youth.
What Became of Pam IH ch. 14.
One as an Anaphoric 1368. One is used anaphorically as a Noun-Pronoun substitute for a preceding class:noun. This restricti«n to class-nouns is a reminder of its numerical meaning, but its function is rather that of an independent article (a). One in this function can be followed by an adjective, a prepositional adjunct, or a clause (6). See also 1406.
a. I have agents everywhere. Old Mr. Quinney was one.
Vachell, Quinneys'.
A letter to his mother seemed the only course open, and he wrote one there and then. Sidgwick, Severins.
Though he enjoyed the theatre, he had not crossed the doors of one for twenty years. Stevenson, Dr. Jekyll p. 1.
b. And yet the age was one profuse and luxurious in all the surroundings of secular life. Wakeman, Introd. p. 422.
The subject of this volume is and will always remain one of absorbing interest. Times Lit. 21/12, '17.
Dr. Morgan's book is one that only the present age could have produced. Times Ed. S. 1/2, '16.
1369. Sometimes one does not refer to a word that has been mentioned but to one that is more or less clearly present in the speaker's mind. See 1391 and 1394 on non-anaphoric one. A voice behind her said: "Nothing nicer than darkness, is there?" She knew at once it was the one who was going to bite.
Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 8.' "Shut up, Ame," he replied, smiling. Life being short, he usually called her Ame when they were alone together.



256
Pronouns
"Or Pil catch you one') in the eye with the poker."
Bennett, Old W. Tale II ch. 4 § 1 p. 195.
One as an Anaphoric 1370. The numerical meaning is quite Prop-word gone when anaphoric one is preceded by an article or when it is used in the plural form ones; but the restriction to class-nouns points to its origin. For this function of one the name prop-word has been invented: one serves as a prop to the preceding article, which cannot be used without a noun or noun equivalent. One with the definite article is usual when the adjunct is one of those that cannot precede their headword (participles and prepositional adjuncts or a clause, etc.; see the sections on the place of adjective-adjuncts). We expected Lady Doleford, and Lady Barbara, and Evelyn, and perhaps Lady Doleford's sister-in-law, the one with the secretary. Cotes, Cinderella ch. 7.
That is his likeness — the one hanging against the wall behind you. Gaskell, Wives I ch. 5.
Stevenson will not be widely read by gene rat ions that follow the one now growing up. Pilot 26/10, 1901.
But of all his doings the one that is most remembered today is the one that was least known to his contemporaries.
Times Lit. 5/10, '17. The absentee landlord is a curse, of course. I'm afraid I'm a bit of a one myself. Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 25.
"If you don't like them now, why do you have them? Why not plain white for the walls and no curtains at all, until you can get ones you really do like")?"
Mackenzie, Guy and Pauline p. 57. Of her numerous other writings the ones which seem to stand nearest to it are her familiar letters. Lit. World.
I doubt, however, whether, if an examination could be made of the subsequent lives of the boys of my time, it would be found that the ones who acquitted themselves best either as
1) viz. a blow. 2) Note that the article before ones would completely change the. meaning.



One as a Peop-Word
257
Men or "Gentlemen" were also the ones who were the most vigorous exponents of the traditions of St. WithoW.
De Morgan, Vance ch. 12.
1371. The use of the anaphoric prop-word with the definite article is vejy similar to the use of the demonstrative pronouns discussed in 1199. The prop-word has the advantage of being also used to refer to persons, and is sometimes preferable on account of euphony (e. g. when the relative that follows). On the other hand, the demonstratives have the advantage of being able to refer to non-class-nouns. See al£}0 1377.
Anaphoric one with the indefinite article is colloquial only
1372. The numerical meaning of the anaphoric prop-word one is sometimes not quite gone, i. e. it is not quite a propword but rather a numeral.
Of all writers Jane Austen is the one, so we should have thought, who has had the least cause to complain of her critics- Times Lit. 28,10, '20.
But of all forms of literature the essay is the one which least calls for the use of long words. Times Lit. 30,11, 22.
1373. One, plural ones is also used after adjectives. This place of the adjective shows that one has ceased to be a pronoun (1363). It is little more than a form-word, but there is enough of a numerical meaning in one after adjectives for it to be only used to refer to class-nouns, not to material and abstract nouns.
The fifth century was a critical one in the history of reh«ion- Wakeman, Introd. p. 5.
M. Paul Meyer is a French philologist, not a German one.
Mod. Lang. Teaching vol. 12. The original Government scheme of demobilisation was a good one on paper. New Statesman, 11/1, '19.
Sophia, foremost, was carrying a large tray, and Conetance a small one. Bennett, Old Wives' Tale I ch. 2 § 1.
Krüisinoa, Handboek II. Accidence and Syntax. 2. n



258
Pronouns
Tve seen a good many parsons in my time", said Toogood; "but I don't think I ever saw such a one as him."
Trollope, Last Chronicle, ch. 77.
These boys are the very ones I saw yesterday in the act of robbing a pheasant's nest. Sweet, Spoken English p. 64.
He knew how to establish his power by old theories as well as by new ones. Gardiner and Mullinger, Introd. p. 47.,
Few teachers are born, good ones must be made.
Sat. Rev. 10/11, 17.
This summer I have taken up no new book, but have renewed my acquaintance with several old ones which I had not opened for many a year. Gissing, Ryecroft, Summer IX.
The forest, at first only pines and rather scrubby ones, stretches the whole way from Baabe to Göhren.
Eliz. in Rügen.
1374. The use of one after converted nouns serves to make the adjectival character of the nouns indubitable.
If you did not care to bring a secretary, I would promise you the services of an amateur one.
Oppenheim, A People 's Man ch. 27. He did bis best to smile, and went off gawkily with the coUar and came back with a linen one.
Bennett, Old Wives' Tale, n ch. 1/12 p. 152. Mrs. Melville, when she arrived to take part in the conference, which gradually swelled to a family one, was equally unable to make Lady Jocelyn perceive ...
Meredith, Harrington, ch. 29.
And I can perfectly understand her picture being in the papers, especially somehow, in the New York Sunday ones.
Cotes, Cinderella ch. 5.
On a side-line was a little train that reminded Peter of the Treliss to Truro one. Walpole, Fortitude.
The competition of the Bombay mills with the Lancashire ones does not at present extend to the greater part of what we send to India. Manchester Guardian.



One as a Prop-Word
259
I don't mind the Chamonix one or that little chap *) under the buckle there — the one. from the Ganaries. But how could I face Bournemouth with all those German and Austrian hotel labels on my bag? Punch 31/3, '15.
Their attitude has become an absolute non-possumus one.
Times Ed. S. 26/10, '16.
The very portraits on the walls, especially the full-length ones, seemed to look down with interest at the proceedings.
Cotes, Ginderella, ch. 19.
Electric engines are so imperfect now that steam ones come cheaper. Shaw, Irrational Knot.
1375. The use of one(a) makes it possible to use converted nouns as nominal predicates (a). When one is used after predicative adjectives that can also be used without one it seems to have a classifying function, in accordance with its numerical origin (b).
a. My visit is a business one.
He was proud of the improvements which had made his place a show one in the country. Pickthall, Larkmeadow ch. 6. Their dormitory was a three-bed attic one.
Kipling, Stalky and Go.
b. Every age offers examples of contrary tendencies, and it is unfair to single out certain ones to the exclusion of others. Einstein, Tudor Ideals p. 67.
Yet the idea of a great change supervening upon insignificant causes is an instruetive one. Times Lit. 8/3, 23.
1376. There is no fundamental difference in function between one preceded by some word and the simple one: in both cases we have a prop-word, as in the following quotation.
There's one of your German bands — why, I believe it's the very same one I saw last year at the foot of Snowdon — the very last place I should have expected to meet one.
Sweet, Spoken English p. 77.
1) i. e. a label.



260
Pronouns
1377. The anaphoric prop-word one also competes with the demonstrative pronouns in combination with attributive adjectives; see 1371. In the following quotation ones would also be possible (the usual ones). Note the difference in the place of usual.
He could see nothing in the preparations going on which at all differed from those usual.
Montgomery, Misunderstood ch. 5.
1378. The use of one as a substitute for a noun after adjectives is often avoided in literary English by putting the noun after the last adjective.
No one who compares English with foreign universities can fail to be struck by the prominence of literary, philosophical and historical studies in our education.
Oxf. and Camb. Rev. no. 1. Now the commonly received explanation of this is that Italian are naturally stronger than English throats.
Pilot 12/9, 1903. Gonsider what has happened in India. The most practical and energetic of Western has been brought into contact with the most contemplative of Eastern nations.
Cromer, Imperalism. But it is always the piquant rather than the significant fact which gains popular currency. Times Lit. 30/11, '17.
1379. The use of the possessive noun-pronouns serves the same end.
His was not a very reflective mind.
Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 11. On the whole ours is a good corps. Punch 31/3, 15. Mine was, I think, the last house he visited before he went to Brighton. Hole, Memories, p. 165.
1380. One. as an anaphoric prop-word is never used after genitives, nor after the emphatic genitives and possessives with own. For non-anaphoric one after own, see 1391, 2a.



One as a Pbop-Word
261
What used to be half a day's journey from a northern to a southern suburb is now scarce half an hour's. Daily News.
That house is my uncle's.
I am not a tenant of this house; it is my own.
The bedpost was his own, the bed was his own, the room was his own. Dickens, Carol.
1381. One is also absent after pronouns and numerals. Sometimes it is found after the demonstratives (especially the singulars this and that), the interrogative which (rarely what) and the indefinite each, other; see the respective pronouns. Perhaps it is the pronominaJ function of following that causes it to be used without one.
He has got three rabbits, and I have only two.
Nothing more was done in the nineteenth century, but already no fewer than five new dioceses have been erected in the twentieth century. Clayton, Dioceses p. 28.
This is proved by such an example as the following.
1382. The use of the anaphoric prop-word one after possessive pronouns is quite exceptional.
I ought to give you my name. It's Rattray of one of the many Kirby Halls in this country. My one's down in Lancashire. Hornung, Dead Men Teil No Tales.
1383. One is a numeral, not a prop-word, in the following quotation.
I gave papa his twelve letters — his herd of possessions — and kept back my one, my ewe-lamb. Brontë, Villette ch. 32.
1384. One is found after cardinal numbers used to denote the time of day (a); also after first, second, and third, though these are generally used without one (b). One after the higher ordinale is exceptionaL



262
Pronouns
a. "Well, which train shall we go by to-morrow? There's one at nine and another at half past twelve." "We'd better take the nine one, if it is not too early for you."
Sweet, Spoken English p. 80.
b. The present edition is the first one of any of Alfred's works which is based on contemporary manuscripts.
Sweet, Preface to Cura Pastoralis. Find the book for me on the shelf; it is the third one from the left. Every fresh impression confirmed the first ones.
Sidgwick, Severins ch. 3.
1385. After comparatives one is often used, hut they are as frequently found without one.
1. On the whole, therefore, the view that Chaucer's so-called 'Italian period' dates from his first Italian journey, that is, from the year 1373, seems the more reasonable one.
Edinb. Rev. April 1908. The conception was a nobler one. Wakeman, Introd. p. 92. I did not mention the subject of Audubon and her father, for it is never well to let an elder sister know that a younger one has been talking about her.
Allen, Kentucky Cardinal ch. 6. I began to think of many things, and my thoughts were happier ones than I had known for months.
2. The author is more uniformly successful in his rhymed poems, particularly in the shorter of them.
Athenaeum, 2/9, 1905. Mr. H... who was four or five inches the talier of the two.
Hole, Memories p. 82.
The reason for the absence of one seems to be that in the case of comparatives there are two specimens or classes that are contrasted; see 1388. When no such contrast between two is distinctly thought of, one must be used.
On the other hand new conceptions have not by any means invalidated all the older ones. Times Lit. 4/5, '16.



One as a Peop-Word
263
1386. After relative superlatives one is sometimes found (a); but they are oftener used without (b).
When Mr. Johnston's book on ' Writing and Illuminating' appeared, we stated.... that this work was, in our opinion, the best one on the subject that has been written for English students. Athenaeum, 16/7, 1910.
In our modern civilization the least esteemed and the worst paid of our workers are precisely the only absolutely necessary ones — the tillers of the soil; and their lives, which might
be the most happy ones, are among the dullest and most
hopeless of those of the sons of men. ib. 3/8, '12.
The rnidsummer aspect of New York is not perhaps the most favourable one. James, Daisy Miller, p. 111.
6. His method was not perhaps the best, but he was the ablest exponent of the method of his time.
Now we are told that the battle — the old word is still the most convenient — rages with great violence around Lens and La Bassée. Times W. 9/10, '14.
1387. After absolute superlatives with most the prop-word is regularly used.
I want no other room; I have got a most comfortable one.
1388. Absence of one is very common when two things or two kinds are contrasted; see 1385 on one after comparatives. This shows that the original numerical meaning still exerts its influence; see 1370.
He would watch the decay of the old trees and the progress of the young, and make pictures in his eye of every turn in the wood. Trollope, Framley ch. 37.
He could not bring himself to tackle new books, and the old had lost the potency of their appeal.
Cannan, Corner ch. 22.
Everywhere small establishments have been swallowed up in large. Escott, England I p. 7.



264
Pronouns
We are a mere handful. We have dwindled tö four white men among a host of dark. Dell, Way of an Eagle p. 19.
Winnie suggested, in regard to foreigners, there were probably good and bad as with us.
Pett Ridge, Name of Garland, ch. 14. Mother, I could have wished to come to see you in a red coatIt has been ordered that I should wear a black *).
Cannan, Round the Corner, ch. 1. Once the steamer ticket is paid for, one gets anxious about the question of cabin companion.... Will he snore? Will he be a good sailor or a bad?
Algernon Blackwood, Morning Post 9/4, '12. Pity as a motive, as well as a feeling in itself, is strenger in an old doctor than in a young, so he be made of the right stunC- Hole, Memories, p. 99.
This state of things has its good side as well as its bad.
Wakeman, Introduction, p. 69.
1389. Perhaps it is for this reason that one is never used in the following cases.
My right foot is a little larger than my left. The Old Testament fills three times as many pages as the New.
The Northern half of the world has much more land than the southern.
1390. It also seems that one is avoided when the adjective does not denote a quality (a). The reason, however, may also be that of 1388, or the fact that one is feit to be too colloquial; this certainly explains the last quotation, which illustrates a wordorder that is distinctly literary (b).
a. Some sub-committees were appointed, among them a Welsh and a Scottish. Times W. 10/10, '13.
1) i.e. as a military man.
2) i. e. as a clergyman.



One as a Peop-Woel»
265
Langland stands for the theological conception of life and Chaucer for the sensuous or Renaissance conception ').
Sefton Delmer, Eng. Lit. It was clear that owing to the situation we must choose between the Bulgarian route and the Serbo-Greek route.
G. M. Trevelyan, Contemp. Rev. Aug. '13. b. Sottiae is a strong word and a dangerous when applied to a master of prose. Times, Lit. 27/1, '16.
One as an Independent 1391. One is also used as a prop-word Prop-Word without referring to a noun. In this function it almost invariably denotes persons. Non-anaphoric one is used in very much the same functions as anaphoric one but it is far less common. It is found:
1. after the articles.
To-day the sewing-girl thrust out spiteful glances at me several times. She is the one that helped Georgiana last year when she was making her wedding-clothes.
Allen, Kentucky Cardinal ch. 1.
2. after adjectives, not only in standing combinations (a), but also in new ones (6).
a. A knowing one. My sweet one. The Holy one. The Evil one. The great ones of this world. God bless you, my own one! Trollope, Framley ch. 8. But it was neither the Gospel of Jesus nor the proclamation by His disciples of the Risen one that gained the victory.
Times Lit. 25/12, '19. Be careful what you say to that woman. I don't want her here by any chance. The young ones were quite bad enough.
Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 19. Nevertheless Leonora noticed that the three young ones (viz. her daughters) seemed now to shrink into themselves.
Bennett, Leonora ch 3.
1) Avoidance of one may here be due to the abstract meaning of the noun. But see the second quotation of 1385.



266
Pronouns
b. Eric Ta van had gone to Switzerland ...; when Alf red joked with her about the absent one... she feit indignant.
Pickthall, Larkmeadow ch. 24.
Constance, however, feit jealous of Miss Insull; she was conscious of a slight antipathy towards the faithful one.
Bennett, Old Wives' Tale II ch. 6 § 1.
Without lighting his candle he sat down at once on the three- legged stool, and pondered on what he had seen and heard touching that still loved-one of his ').
Hardy, Return of the Native I ch. 9.
Why had they not told him that she was such a one as this? Trollope, Last Ghron. ch. 57.
Lying there is the dark, the simple Constance never suspected that those two active and strenuous ones had been arranging her life for her. Bennett, Old W. Tale IV ch. 3 § 2.
He was content in this first term to follow loyally with other heedless ones the trend of the moment.
Sinister Street p. 545.
It is true that, according to Mr. Wilson, the sale of a few too celebrated. novelists has al most ceased; but this does not disturb Mr. Wilson, nor will it greatly disturb anybody except the too celebrated ones themselves and perhaps their publishers. Times Lit. 1,6, 16.
"But, Michael, how can I marry you? I ha ven't told you anything really about myself."
"Foolish one, you've told me everything that matters."
Mackenzie, Sylvia and Michael p. 303.
3. after any, every, no, some, to form compounds, see 1417 ff. On anaphoric one after these pronouns, see 1381 f. Compare also 1329, and 1398.
1392. One is not used after adjectives when the whole class of persons is referred to, and in a few cases when individuals are meant (the dead); see the sections on the conversion of adjectives into nouns.
1) Note the hyphen.
/



Oke as a Prop-Word
267
1393. After comparatives non-anaphoric one is sometimes absent; see 1385. This usage is exclusively literary.
A wiser than she would have selected the post-prandial hour. Vachell, Quinneys'.
Like a greater than himself, to the critical question at the critical time he did not answer; and they were again silent.
Hardy, Tess.
1394. One is occasionally used non-anaphorically with reference to things. See 1369.
That's a good one (viz. a good joke).
Dickens, Oliver Twist ch. 23. "Good! Very good indeed. I must try to remember that one. That's the best I have heard for a long time!"
Pett Ridge, Garland.
Young one refers to animals: A neet wüh five young ones in vb.
1395. In the following quotation latest might be considered as a converted adjective but it resembles the case a good one just mentioned. The absence of one, is to be explained according to 1386.
You haven't heard his latest, I suppose?
Bennett, Old W. Tale p. 522.
Other
Other 1396. Other is used as an adjective (a) or as a noun (b). As a singular noun it must have an article before it (another, the other); it is also found with the plural ending of nouns: others. It occurs in the genitive: another''s (c). The noun other(s) denotes persons; it may also denote things, but only when the noun has been mentioned.
a. The other member for the county of Bublin was Golonel Patrick Sarsfield.



268
Pronouns
Another time I shall be more careful. The other boys had nothing to do with it. You know he was blind of one eye, and now he has lost his other eye, too. Use Pears' soap once and you will use no other.
b. If you don't go soon another will be there before you.
c. The same word may be 'popular' in one man's vocabulary and 'learned' in another's.
1397. The noun other is very exceptionally preceded by another qualifier than an article.
I wish the reviewer or some other could inform me of its whereabouts. Academy, 1905.
1398. Other is occasionally followed by the prop-word one, anaphorically (a) and independently (b).
a. The man who had the old house before me died of rbeumatism, so I pulled it down, and built another one higher up. Sweet, Spoken Engl. p. 73.
Stanway's cob, always quicker to start than to stop, had been pulled up with difficulty, drawing his cart just clear of the other one. A. Bennett, Leonora ch. 1.
b. And then his constancy had been so perfect. If that other one had never come. Trollope, Last Chronicle ch. 52.
1399. In literary English other is also used as a singular noun, denoting a thing, generally after pronouns (a). Sometimes it is found as a noun with a plural meaning; the word it refers to follows in an q/-adjunct (b). When a pronoun precedes, other may also be looked upon as an adjective; see 1401.
a. But it will not be admitted so readily that anything other than harm can issue from an attempt to deal with him as if he were a philosopher. Jones, Browning ch. 2.
In an evil hour, according to the comment of George Henry Lewes, he (viz. Roger Bacon) had become a Franciscan friar.



Other
269
But, a younger son, and given to learning, what other could he have done, one might ask. Times Lit 11/6, '14.
Jane was too frightened to do other than scream.
Baring-Gould in Swaen T p. 13.
He could not therefore be other than an enemy of Dr. Thorne. Trollope, Thorne ch. 24.
b. The Jesuit stayed with him as long as he could, but many other of Inglesant's friends at Oxford showed him great kindness. Shorthouse, Inglesant ch. 8.
The house was partly deserted and partly occupied by a family of priests, and he slept there when he was not at the Gardinal's palace, or with other of his friends. ib.
It has recently been suggested that other of the "Cantorbury Tales".... may have been written at this time.
Pilot 28/9, 1903.
The wide infiuence of this and other of his books is shown by the fact that most of them have reached a sixpenny edition.
Athen. 28/8, '15.
But the merits of the book gradually obtained for it a popularity at home which has been surpassed by that of but one or two other of Diekens's works. Ward, Dickens ch. 3.
And that is its chief defect, for a handbook is primarily intended for other than specialists. Times Lit. 24/2, '16.
1400. In all the quotations given hitherto, other denotes one of two which remains after one is taken, or it denotes one of two groups into which we devide persons or things. Sometimes other means second or additional
Will you have another cup ?
1401. In literary English other sometimes means 'different in nature or character'; it occurs both attributively (a) and predicatively (6). It is rarely found as a noun, without an article (e).
1) The fact that other onginally meant 'second* does not atter the fact that this meaning is not the primary one of other in present-day English: a shifting has taken place.



270
Pronouns
a. But the poacher was another kind of vermin than the stupid tenant. Meredith, Beauchamp's Gareer, ch. 2.
But during these dreams she beheld herself as herself, never reckoning that her ideas and ideals might make another woman of her under conditions and conventions other than what she so thoroughly understood. Yachell, Quinneys'.
To Henry James the novel was something other than a convenient hold-all into which any valuable observations and reflections might be stufled at the last moment.
Times Lit. 9/3, '16.
b. The little prince's education teaches him that he is other than. you. Meredith, Egoist.
It may be presumed that the De Courcys found it to their liking, or they would have made it other than it was.
Trollope, Dr. Thorne, p. 160. She plunged gallantly into an adventure the more exciting because it was other than what she had deemed it to be.
Vachell, Spragge p. 59.
c. It was the first time she had had the opportunity of using that word to other than a servant.
Bennett, Old W. T. III ch. 3 § 1.
1402. Post-position of the attributive other often causes it to have or approach this meaning.
No neighbours other than the owners of big gardens would disturb their peace. Yachell, Quinneys'.
We are reminded by this sentence that as regards a very important portion of the work we have to deal with a writer other than Miss Foxcroft. The story of the formative part of Burnet's life is told, and told well, by the Bev. T. E. S. Glarke, the present minister of Saltoun. Athen. 1/2, 1908.
Some or 1403. Sometimes some or one and other are comother bined by or (a), although some... or other, one or other, is the usual order (6).
a. And it is equally clear that some or other Act in Parliament, some or other statesmanlike move in foreign affairs,



Other
271
or even some or other victory won in the nation's name but without the remotest kind of benefit to its people — that all these, and other noteworthy public events, may have no earthly reference to the actual mind of the people.
English Review, May 1913 p. 323.
Almost every acre in Africa is under the protectorate of one or other European Power. Rev. of Reviews.
She usually offended her guests by immersing herself deeply in conversation with one or other of her neighbours.
Etiquette.
b. Something or other had happened just before she left home. Gaskell, Wives LI p. 219.
The two girls had usually some nightly conversation in one or other of their bedrooms1); but to-night Cynthia said something or other about being terribly tired, and hastily shut her door. ib. U, p. 36.
I saw it in somè book or other.
One.... 1404. One.... another are used to refer to an another indefinite number.
Innumerable insects skimmed across the surface of the water, and one or two bees droned idly, as they flew from one water-lily to another. Montgonvjry, Misunderstood ch. 12.
For one thing, he was pre-eminently a national historian... For another thing, he never could be bothered to decipher manuscripts or read records. Hearnshaw, Records p. 9.
1405. One and another means two or more.
I have heard it from one and another during the week.
Oxf. Dict. s. v. one no. 17.
1) Note that one or other is not the combination here meaning some; it refers to two bedrooms. Sintüarly in the following: "One of us goes, that's certain, if you please, mum," is the sort of ultimatum I am in the habit of receiving about once a fortnight from one or other of the contending powers (i.e. two servants). Glow-worm Tales, Tauchnitz p. 258.



272
Pronouns
The one.... 1406. The one.... the other are used when the other speaking of two, both as noun- (a) and as adjective-pronouns (b).
a. She took Cynthia into her arms with gentle power, and laid her head against her own breast, as if the one had been a mother and the other a child.
Gaskell, "Wives III, p. 160.
The true answer is, that there exists an important distinction between a change of public opinion and an alteration in the course of legislation. The one has in modern England never been rapid, the other has sometimes, though rarely, been sudden. Dicey, Law and Public Opinion p. 31.
Assize and size are so different in sense that no one would think of them as the same word, and yet the one is only a shortened pronunciation of the other.
Bradley, Making of English.
b. It is possible now to think of the Middle Ages and their literature without prejudice on the one side or on the other. Ker, Eng. Lit. p. 12.
The speech of the Prime Minister in the one House, and of Lord Curzon in the other, did little more than touch upon some of the more wonderful of the feats achieved.
Times W. 2/11, 17.
In Macbeth we see and héar the Witches, in Hamlet the Ghost. In the first scène of Julius Caesar and of Coriolanus those qualities of the crowd are vividly shown which render hopeless the enterprise of the one hero and wreek the arabition of the other. Bradley, Shakespearean Tragedy.
1407. When the one and the other refer severally to two persons or things previously named, they are by some taken as equivalent to the former and the latter, by others as the latter and the former.
Sometimes the article is not used before one in this construction (a). Occasionally one is repeated (6).



Other
273
The history of Bonnivard had evidently, as they say, gone into one ear and out of the other.
James, Daisy Miller ch. 2. There are two ways of being a slave, to the public. One is to be af raid to agree with it.
Bradley, Reaction against Tennyson, p. 6. It throws as much light on the constitution of the United States as upon the constitution of England, that is, it throws from a legal point of view no light upon either one or the other- D'cey, Law of the Gonstit. Lect. I p. 15.
b. Some words, like envelope and avalanche, have two pronunciations, one English, and one as nearly French as possible.
Each other, 1408. Each other and one another are used as one another reciprocal pronouns. They seem to be used without any difference of meaning, in spoken as well as in literary English, although Sweet (E. E. Gr. § 127) says that each other generally implies only two, one another more than two persons 1).
The Crescent which was on the North side of Regent's Park, was not a sociable CreScent. The people living in it did not know each other, and at first none of them knew the Severiüs.. Sidgwick, Severina ch. 1.
These two war-books are complementary to one another.
It viz. Jane Austen's Emma) contains, in Mr. Woodhouse and Miss Bates, two minor characters who resemble one another in being the object equally of our laughter and our unqualified respect and affection. Bradley, Essays "II, p. 21.
On the reciprocal meaning of the compound personal pronouns, see 1060.
1) But he had forgotten the rule by the time he reached § 266, where we Ünd: "In such combinations the two objects do not-stand in any special relation to one another."
Kruisinga, Handbook II. Aceidence and Syntax. 2. 18



274:
Pronouns
Else 1409. A synonym of other as used after a pronoun (see 1399) is else, which is usually classed as an adverb and is frequently used as an adjunct to a preceding noun-pronoun (1842).
Else is used after interrogative and indefinite pronouns and adverbs: who else, what else, somebody else, everybody else, somewhere else, etc, also after much, little, a good deal, and after things.
Like other it may mean something or somebody 'as an alternative' or 'additional.'
Have you seen any body else? What else could I do?
Singing is little else than a bighly beautiful speaking.
If it is not my business, it is nobody else's.
I saw the circle shining white and bright, and the rod black and shining, and many things else distinct and clear.
Wells, Country p. 178.
When you enjoy a writer thoroughly you do not ask yourself whether he is superior to some other writer, as, when you love anyone, you do not ask whether he is better than someone else. Times Lit. 26/10, '17.
Same
1410. Same expresses identity with what follows in a clause with as or with a relative pronoun; see 1171 f. It is also used to refer backward: "I went on Monday." " We intended to go on the same day, but were prevented." It may also be used without any such reference: Se is always the same to everybody.
The word is always preceded by the definite article or a demonstrative pronoun. The indefinite article is never used but one and the same expresses this meaning: They belong to one and the same class.
When same is used predicatively without a qualifier it is an adjective, equivalent to 'monotonous'. This usage is exceptional.



Several, Some
275
The choruses in 'Judith' are numerous, and to the lay mind perhaps a little same. Pall Mali Gaz. 3/2, 1891 »).
Several
1411. Several is chiefly used as an adjective, to refer to a number forming a group, usually more than two (a). If preceded by a pronoun (or article) it refers to each individual of the group (6), and is often equivalent to respective (e). Several is rarely used as an adjective meaning 'private' when referring to the form of ownership of land (d).
a. Several days have passed since I wrote to him.
b. The several characters of the story are well handled, notably a smart woman of the world. Athen. 22/2, 1908.
The first commonwealth able to solve the problems which Athens and Persia in their several ways had failed to solve was that of Rome. Gardiner and Mullinger, Introd. p. 4.
c. Our thanks are due to Mr. A. F. Bartholomew, Mr. G. A. Brown and Mr. H. V. Routh for specific assistance in respect of the bibliographies to which their several initials are appended. Camb. Hist. of Eng. Lit. vol XI, pref. note.
It might be thought that one special topic would have absorbed us, that we would have rushed to discuss the engagement of our several brother and sister. Cotes, Cinderella ch. 23.
d. Caesar describes the Suevi as having no several or private estates. Stubbs, Early Eng. Hist. p. 5.
Some
1412. Some refers to what is assumed as actually existing, although the person or thing may not have been mentioned, and may even be unknown. Before a singular noun it means
a certain quantity (a) or «a certain', 'one or other' (o);
before a plural (or collective) noun it refers to a number of three or more (c)2).
1) Oxf. Dict.
2) For an indefinite number smaller than three we use one or two, a couple.'



276
Pbonouns
a. I want some money, please.
He waited for some time, but at .last he went away.
b. I am going to ask him to put his case into some lawyer's hands. Trollope, Last Chronicle I ch. 21.
Some more regular and constitutional solution of his problem will have to be found. Times "W. 9/11, '17.
c. He has been here some years. Some watches are better than others.
Some people paid ten shillings for their seats.
1413. Some is also used as a noun, when it denotes a number of persons (a); when followed by an of- adjunct it can refer to a singular (abstract or material) noun (6) or to a plural class-noun denoting persons or things (c). In the last case some itself is plural in meaning. See 1323 on any and 1418 ff. on someone.
a. I shouldn't have cared about the man, though some may say he's good-looking.
Hardy, Return of the Native I ch. 3.
b. Give me some of the wine.
We are painfully striving to-day to recover some of that international sense which was lost in the deluge of nationalism in the sixteenth century. Times Lit. 11/3, '20.
I agree with some of what you say.
Gompton Mackenzie, Guy and Pauline.
e. Higher up there are some of the most sublime scènes I have looked on anywhere. Roper, By Track and Trail XV, 27 (Oxf. Dict. s. v. some no. 6).
1414. Some is used adverbially before words denoting number, to express 'about, more or less.'
Some hundred people were present.
(The book was) published some quarter of a century ago.
Athen. 8/11, '13.
1415. It may be useful to compare the use oisome and any (a), especially in interrogative and conditional sentences; see 1326 (o).



Some
277
When she was gone he stood listening at the door for some sound — for any sound, even the sound of her dress.
Galsworthy, Country House II, ch. H. He was surprised to see any human being in the lonely and unfrequented place, but supposing it to be some one of the neighbourhood in need of his assistance, he hastened down to yield it. W. Irving, Sketch-Book p. 39.
The old ideal of the scientific man that he should know something of everything, and everything of something, will have to be modified, lest in the effort to learn something of everything he should leave himself no time or energy to know much of anything. Times Lit. 19/1, '17.
A boy should knew, even if at second hand, that in this world some one has to work for whatever anyone enjoys; and he should know also that it is the duty of every one, however bom and bred, to give value for what he gets.
Times Ed. S. 25 9, 19. b. Can you give me some lunch, Clare? I don't mean to go home till three. Gaskell, Wives n, p. 203.
Have you any money? — (The speaker doubts as to the person addressed having money).
Have you some money for me? — (The speaker knows, or thinks he knows, that the person addressed has the money, but only asks if he is willing to give him some'.
Is there any difficulty in this? (There may or may not be a difficulty in this).
Is there some difficulty in this? — (The words or the behaviour of the person addressed lead the speaker to believe that there really in some difficulty).
I saw the doctor leaving Mr. B.'s house. I went up to him, and asked: „Is somebody ill there?" — (I say some because I can't imagine the doctor would visit B.'s house except to see a patiënt. But I should ask: „Is anybody ill there?" if the doctor was a friend of Mr. B.'s and might call as such).
Cannot you give me some hints? — i.e. You could if you would).



278
PfiONOUNS
Cannot you give me any hints? — (You say you cannot but I can hardly believe it).
Webster defines solicitous as 'eager to obtain something desirable, or to avoid anything evil'.
What would I have given, if I had had anything to give, to have been sent back to any other school, to have been taught something anywhere. Dickens in Forster-Gissing.
As soon as there are no trains to catch a journey becomes magnificently simple. We might loiter as long as we liked on the road if only we got to some place, any place, by nightfall. Eliz. in Rügen. — (Here some place is used first: we had to get to some place to find a home for the night; then follows any place, i. e. it did not matter at all what place they came to).
He attempted to sketch her face on a bit of paper, but had no skill, and he thrust the paper into the paperbasket, horrified at having made anything so hideous in the effort to represent anything so beautiful. — (The draughtsman is represented as being so horrified at the result of his attempt that he treats the fact that the drawing was hideous as doubtful, as if he disbeliéved the evidence of his senses, and asked the question: 'How could anybody produce anything as ugly as this in representing anything so beautiful as this face is?').
Sundry
1416. Sundry is chiefly used as an indefinite numeral, expressing 'a number of, several.'
Sundry experienced and fat old women were standing or sitting at their cottage doors.
Bennett, Clayhanger I ch. 2 § 5.
Thing
1417. Thing is treated as a noun, taking articles and pronouns, the plural ending, etc, although its meaning is frequently as general as that of many pronouns (a), It is



Compound Indefinite Pronouns
279
best considered as a pronoun when it is used as an independent prop-word to make adjectives into neuter nouns (b). For the effect of its pronomina! function on the place of adjectives, see Wordorder.
a. Things had changed greatly in the course of a year.
Freeman, Norman Gonquest, 114. PU buy a cloak for her the first thing to-morrow morning.
Anstey, Tinted Venus. Just now it is the summer of things; there is life and music everywhere. Fairless, Roadmender I.
b. The most remarkable thing about the Lapp is that he can live in Lapland — that is in the Arctic regions, where Norway, Sweden, and Russia push towards the Pole.
Times Lit. Suppl. 12/10, 1917. The valuable thing that the Morman Gonquest gives us is a strong kingship which makes for national unity.
Maitland, Gonstitutional History p. 9. The first thing I can remcmber was my father teaching me the alphabet. Mary Lamb in Select Short Stories
(World's Classics), p. 1.
Compound Indefinite Pronouns
1418. The pronouns every and no, which are used as adjectives only, and the pronouns any and some whose use as nouns is restricted, form compounds with -body and -one chiefly to refer to persons, with -thing to refer to other than persons. The form of these compounds: everybody, everyone, everything, etc. does not call for comment; except the compounds with no: no one, none, nobody, nothing. Each forms a compound with one only (not with -body), because the compounds in one, like each itself, can only be used to refer to a definite class; besides, each is freely used as a noun-pronoun.
The use of these compounds as far as the first element is concerned does not Bhow any peculiarities. But the use of



280
Psonoüns
the -second element, especially the distinction between the compounds in -body and -one, both denoting persons, and the distinctions between none and no one must be specially treated» The second element of these compounds is pronominaL Two of them have been treated in the chapter on Indefintie Pronouns, viz. one and thing; body is not so used in Standard English, but it occurs in familiar or dialectica! English for 'person,' as in Eis wife was a more tidy body (Harriet Martineau l).
Compounds 1419. The forms anyone, everyone, someone are in one used to refer to other than persóns when the noun to which one refers, occurs in the sentence in a prepositional adjunct immediately after the pronoun. In this function one has a numerical meaning, so that the words cannot be considered as full compounds. They are often written in two words.
Every one of her books seems to be a superb gesture of defiance. Times Lit. 13/4, '16.
If my reader asks why I do not send the statement I am going to make to some one of the special periodicals that deal with such subjects Holmes, Over the Teacups p. 11.
Self-conciousness, aestheticism, a dislike for waste, a hatred of injustice; these — someone of these, when coupled with that desiré natural to men throughout all ages to accomplish something — constituted the motive forces which enabled them to work their bellows. Galsworthy, Fraternity ch. 13.
It opened to them new worlds, and every one of them glorious. Kipling, Light that Failed.
1420. These semi-compounds and also eaeh - one are similarly used to refer to persons; very often there is no noun to which they refer fórmally, but only an adjunct with a personal pronoun or a collective noun (like family).
1) Oxf. Dict



Compound Indefinite Pronouns
281
All the servants were old in their places, and were told by some one of the family1), or gathered from the unheeded . conversation carried on before them, everything that affected master or mistress dr either of the young gentlemen. Any . one of them could have told Molly, that the.grievance which lay at the root of everything, was the amount of the bills run up by Osborne at Cambridge. Gaskell, "Wives I, ch. 17.
Every one of us is conscious that bis acts are produced by his will. Vinogradoff, p. 17.
She was sent home in the carriage, loaded with true thanks from every one of the family. Gaskell, "Wives I, ch. 18.
The names are familiar to each one of us; the realities are familiar only to the comparalively limited number whom they specially affect. Escott, England I, p. 11.
So true it is, as I think I may have observed before, that there is something in this wonderful place which sooner or later touches the right chord in each one-of us. Barbara p. 94.
1421. These compounds in -one are also used to denote persons when there is no adjunct at all, as long as the person is thought of as belonging to a definite group.
The rest were busy loading the spare' muskets, and every one with a red face. Stevenson, Treasure Island.
Let each one try to conceive for himself the intensity of such a moment, to such a nature! Let each one try to realise the thoughts which followed each other in hot hasle through his brain 2). Montgomery, Misunderstood ch. 15.
These two in silence certainly understood each one something in the other that was hidden from the gaze of the world.
Hichens, Way of the World ch. 4.
Compounds in -body 1422. When no definite class of persons and In -one ia thought of both the compounds with -body and those with -one can be used.
1) Here one refers to a noun like memoer, which is sufficiently sug-gested by the word family.
2) The writer is addressing her readers.



282
Pronouns
Euphuism was in the mouth of everybody who was anybody in the circle that fluttered round the Queen.
Mair, Eng. Lit p. 51. Any one who does not reckon for this will make a very serious miscalculation. Times Lit 25/1, '18.
Those familiar words are in the mouth of every one.
Jowett, Plato. Down the narrow stone stairs everybody poured.
Sinister Street p. 534. Someone told me you had left at 4 P. M. I want somebody to hold the picture for mé. The subject is so complicated that it is impossible to be right unless the proofs of each section are criticised by someone who knows the history and customs of the school in question.
Pilot, 28/9, 1901.
No one 1423. No one, like the compounds in -one, may be used with an adjunct (a) or without (6). It chiefly refers to persons, but not exclusively (c).
a. No one of the Norman kings, among whom we will include Stephen, was a great legislator.
Maitland, Gonst. Hist p. 9. Suppose that in 1725 Volta ire had at the instigation of an English lord been treated in London as he was treated in Paris.... No one of Voltaire's enemies would, it he ') had been injured in England, have been able to escape from responsibility on the plea of acting in an official character or in obedience to his official superior.
Dicey, Law of the Constitution Lect. VI, p. 224.
b. Molly wished that she had acceded to her father's proposal, and gone home with him. No one.8) seemed to want her. Gaskell, Wives I, ch. 18.
c. No one of Mr. Hardy's novels contains more of the facts of his own life than A Laodicean. (Poutsma p. 1254).
1) i.e. Voltaire.
2) i. e. no one of those in the house.



Compound Indefinite Pronouns
283
No one and 1424. When no definite class of persons is Nobody thought of both no one and nobody can be used.
Molly's father was not at home when she returned; and there was no one to give her a welcome.
Gaskell, Wives I ch. 19.
The effort to please everybody usually results in pleasing nobody. Manchester Exam. 6/11, 1885.
None 1425. Like any one, every one, some one (1419), and more freely than no one (1423), none is used with a prepositional adjunct to refer to other than persons. None, however, does not only refer to plural nouns (a), but also to singular nouns (6).
£.?•*»■ a. The men and women which *) fall under the lash of Mr. Galsworthy's satire have none of the characteristics of the Pharisee. Masterman, Gondition of England ch. 2.
b. I must say I always thought there was none of that nonsense about you. Hobbes, Some Emotions II, ch. 2.
War work has a sort of glamour about it, but working in peace time nas none ot that glamour. Times W. 23,2, '17. None of your New Zealand frozen honey for us, my boy!
Punch U/8, '15.
1426. Unlike the other compounds with one we also find none to refer to a noun, whether denoting persons or not, that is mentioned in the same or in a preceding sentence. In this function none has the function of a negative anaphoric one (1368), but it differs from this in referring not only to class-nouns (a) but also to other nouns (6). None may be singular in meaning or plural. It may be looked upon as the independent form corresponding to the attributive no; see 1429.
a. Among the many institutions in England none is more exposed to the barbs of the critic than the public schools.
Times Ed. S. 19/10, '16.
1) Sic



284
Pronouns
Sounds there were none, save the barking of a dog at some out-lying farm.
Charles Trevail was, in fact, the nephew of the man known as 'Iron' Mor timore, and other near relative the miser had none. Phillpotts, Beacon I ch. 4, p. 24.
He had unconsciously been waiting for that word, than which none was more like a red rag to him.
Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 19.
b. If Hazlitt saw no wit in talking and walking, I see less than none in talking and driving. Eliz. in Rügen.
The Duke reserves to himself the right of sanctioning or rejecting the idea; but direct communication between the Duke and his agents, or the Duke and his tenants, there is none'). Escott, England I, p. 58.
1427. This anaphoric use of none leads to the adverbial. Thus in a sentence like Her own position upon a sharp point of rock was none too secure (Vachell, Quinneys') it is possible to treat none as the nominal predicate, with too secure as an attributive adjunct. But it is also possible, and more in accordance with the linguistic sense of the modern Englishman, to treat none as an adverb-adjunct qualifying the predicative too secure. This last interpretation is also the natural one in the following quotations.
Holmes's "Braad and the Newspaper" reads to-day as if it were none of yesterday's fashioning. Athen. 24/7, '15.
Slowly and with great difficulty, for his understanding was none of the clearest, she explained to him what was required. "None of your key-holes for me, sonny," he said.
Stevenson, Treasure Island. Village there was none, properly speaking.
Trollope, Framley ch. 2, p. 10.
1428. None is generally distinctly adverbial when it quali-
1) This function show that none has not always the function of a negative one, even when its meaning is singular.



Compound Indefinite Pkonouns
285
fies an adjective or adverb preceded by too, so, or a comparative with the. Compare the similar use of any. They are none so fond of him.
To my mind they look none the worse for their nudity.
The evening passed none too gaily.
Patterson, Compton, p. 131.
She was none too soon. Eng. Rev. March 1914, p. 541.
That is all, or nearly all, that we know of the life of one who has added so greatly to our store of quiet and perfectly native humour — a commodity none to superfluous in our great literature. Rhys, Introd. to Cranford (Everyman) p. XJI.
1429. None is also used attributively, especially in literary English, as an emphatic no. It is exclusively found before vowels; compare the similar use of mine and thine.
Even among the Jews, with their extreme respect for sacred books, the written word was made of none account by the tradition of exposition. Davis, Med. Europe p. 120.
With more than one of them navies are a new toy, and, for this reason, if for none other, they are not likely to put them on the shelf. Pilot 21/3, 1903.
1430. None, like no one and the other compounds with one, can denote persons mentioned in a prepositional adjunct. But none is oftener taken in a plural (a) than in a singular sense (o), although the form of the verb often leaves the number undefined.
o. I seemed the victim of my own amiable qualities rather than of those human weaknesses from which none of us are free. White, Mr. John Strood ch. 8.
b. None of the great men who have held his post before him, has spoken to our hearts or expounded our ideals with more force or more truth. Times W. 18/5, '17.
1431. None without an adjunct can denote persons, like no one, and anyone, etc. (see 1421); but here too, unlike



286
Pbonotjns
these compounds, none is oftener taken in a plural (a) than in a singular (b) sense. Sometimes the number is doubtful (e).
a. The contagion had become so general that there were none who could work at it.
He evidently thinks that the things done in Serbia by Englishwomen were things which none but Englishwomen could have done. , Times Lit 5/1, '17.
b. None but a woman could have written Granford.
Rhys in Preface to Granford (Everyman). ft The question startled Elisabeth. None') had ever asked her that before. Phillpotts, Beacon I, ch. 3 p. 16.
Compounds in 1432. The compounds anything, everything, -thing something, and nothing are used in a neuter sense,
With a respite in view, he was ready to agree to anything.
Montgomery, Misunderstood ch. 3.
Parks shall bring you everything and anything you want.
Gaskell, Wives III, p. 254.
I remember something was said about it, but I cannot remember what.
... pictures of... the kindly, empty faces of the Royal Family appeared and reappeared, visiting this, opening that, getting married, getting offspring, lying in state, doing everything but anything2), a wonderful, good-meaning, impenetrable race apart. Wells, Tono-Bungay, ch. 2.
The whole would be like multiplying nothing by nothing — the result would still be nothing.
1433. When something is followed by a noun with of it is often used as an adjunct to the following word, which is always either an adjective or a noun with an adjectival function (frequently a predicative noun). See 1460 on of- adjuncts.
1) Probably the singular number is intended.
2) For this emphatic sense, see 1322.



Compound Indefinite Pronouns
287
. He is genereus, philanthropic, and probably something of an autocrat. Escott, England I p. 77.
The lady was something of a celebrity.
Hope, Zenda ch. 2. He liked to hear of their births, marriages, and deaths. and had something of a royal memory for faces.
Gaskell, Wives Hl, p. 124.
1434. Some of the compounds in -thing are also used adverbially. This applies to the semi-compound anything but, It is equivalent to far from; compare aü but (1320).
As time went on, however, he became anything but proud of his juvenile productions as a dramatist.
Ward, Dickens ch. 2.
1435. The combination anything but is not always a semicompound. In the following quotations the two words have retained their independent meanings.
Nor does there appear to be the slightest reason for supposing that this period of his life was anything but happy.
Ward, Dickens ch. 1.
But my experience has shown me unmistakably that, even with advanced pupils, it is not safe to read an author without translating him first, if anything but a superficial knowledge is aimed at. Mod. Lang. Teaching IV, 45.
1436. The thing-compoxmda are also used adverbially in other cases; nothing chiefly in the combination nothing much, and, in literary English, nothing loth, nothing daunted. See also 1438.
The two girls were certainly anything rather than ordinary').
Hichens, Way of Ambition ch. 7. In certain instances... something very like judicial powers
1) In this sentence anything might just as well be considered as the predicative noun with the following words as an adjunct.. The sentence, like the third and fourth, shows how the adverbial function arose.



288
Pronouns
have *) been given to officials closely connected with the Government. Dieey, Law of the Gonst. 8th ed. p. XLIV.
Michael had nothing much beyond a moral pact with the college authorities to make him covet a good class.
Sinister Street p. 795.
On the whole, however, I had nothing much to complain of except my poverty. Gissing, Ryecroft X.
•What have you done this vac?" they asked him.
"Nothing very much," he said. Sinister Street p. 732.
The scarcely ambiguous answer was something soflened the following -day. Froude, Hist. of England 2).
1437. The compounds in a -body and -thing are sometimes used as ordinary nouns, with a pronoun or article as a qualifier before them, or in the plural form.
With a young nobody for his comrade.
Meredith» Amazing Marriage ch. 8. One Sunday afternoon about that time I was sitting at my writing-desk when a something went by the window.
Wells, Country p. 18. It was not in Stanley to appreciate the peculiar flavour of the Moretons, that something which, in spite of their naïveU and narrowness, had really been rather fine.
Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 4.
They are nobodies.
You should have seen some of the women at the Covent Garden fancy dress ball — the charity ball for indigent somebodies — I forget the exact Cause.
Phillpötts, Bronze Venus ch. 1.
1438. In literary English there is also a noun-pronoun sómewhat (a). Like something, it is used adjectively when followed by a noun with of (b). It also occurs adverbially (e). See 1433 and 1436.
1) The plural verb proves that something is not taken in its function of a noun but that it is used here as an adverb qualifying judicial.
2) Oxf. Dict.



Compound Indefinite Pronouns
289
a. ... to appreciate the restful beauty of ourqwiet eountry scenery, and to learn somewhat of its varied interests.
;'-S#é' • Athen. 24/7, '15.
b. This little spirt of temper was somewhat of a reliëf to Mr, Utterson. Stevenson, Dr. Jekyll p, 19.
He was also somewhat of a time-server. Freeman, Norman Conquest (Oxf. Di$t. s.v. somewhat).
c. (He has) had free scope to use his gift as a story-teller by indulging in a somewhat detailed narrative.
Athen. 19/1, 1907.
I was somewhat surprised.
Jerome, Three Men in a Boat ch. 6.
1439. It may be convenient to mention here the pronomina! naught, nought 'nothing' and aught 'anything', although they are compounds only in their origin. The words are exclusively literary.
Unfaith in aught is want of faith in all. Tennyson.
It was not the Reichstag which gave substance to the unity of Germany, nor did the Roman unity owe aught to parliamentary institutions.
Pollard, Evolution of Parliament p. 361.
1440. Naught (nought) is also used in English as an ordinary noun (with a pronoun or article) to denote the cipher o in arithmetic.
Compounds in 1441. Any, every, some, and no also -how, .where, -way form adverbs with how, where, less often -way: somehow, somewhere, anyhow, anywhere, etc. Also dsewhere. Compounds with -when are exceptional.
He does his work anyhow. I will go with you anywhere.
Virginie always tied up her face on the smallest provocation, though to what end the chüdren had never discovered. Krüisinoa, Handbook II. Acoidence and Syntax. 2. 19



290
Pronouns
But anyhow, she was sure to be out of temper when she did so. Montgomery, Misunderstood ch. 9.
It was difficult somehow to begin. Sinister Street, p. 846.
Papa, do let me have one ride with you! Please do. I am sure we can manage it somehow. Gaskell, Wives II, p. 320.
There's something wrong somewhere. Anyway, nothing will ever induce me to believe that.
Mackenzie, Sylvia and Michael p. 29.
It was somewhen long ago at Limpsfield.
Wells, Joan and Peter ch. 13 § 8, p. 604.



PREPOSITIOHS
1442. Prepositions are used in English not only to make ordinary nouns hut any noun-equivalent and also sentences into adjuncts (a); they may also precede prepositional adjuncts (6). Prepositional objects are discussed in the chapter on SenteneeStrueture.
a. He worked till late at night. I never heard of it till now.
There was a longer fight about who should be king.
Goodspeed, Hist. of the Ancient World.
At length he reached to where the ravine had opened through the cliffs to the amphitheatre.
Washington-Irving, Sketch-Book.
The Government have one duty—that is, to keep the mines working, and they will be judged by whether they succeed or fail in that suprème task.
This reflection was most agreeable, for Gaston was perfectly aware of how little he himself would have enjoyed a struggle.
b. from amongst the crowd; to within ah inch; not till after the examination; winning by about 130 yards; the fleet consisted ot from seventeen to twentv sail of the line.
Thejudgments based upon not far from four decades of experience in the near East are embodied in this volume. ...
Athenaeum.



292
Prepositions
1443. It is usual to distinguish prepositions as a separate part of speech. This is a useful arrangement, but it may be pointed out that prepositions are really other parts of speech used in the function mentioned in the preceding sectio?. Very few words are exclusively used as prepositions, as is the case with of, and it does not require much knowledge of history to see that even this preposition is identical in origin with the adverb off. The preposition to and the adverb (Go to) are identical in spelling, but not in sound [tü, to; tu]; and their respective meanings are so widely different now (as far as the preposition can be said to have a meaning at all), that they are two different words more clearly distinguished even than of and off.
After adverbs it is the participles in free adjuncts (570 ff.) that have most frequently the function of prepositions.
Some groups of words are semi-compounds equivalent in function to prepositions. They often show this outwardly by not taking the definite article before the noun qualified by of (in presence of, etc; see 1288). Also by not taking a preposition after the noun; thus we find both on board a steamer, on board of a steamer. Such a group as on board hardly differs from a preposition like beside. Compare also beside, outside, inside; and on either side in the following quotation.
In the pretentious and banal sitting-room they sat down on either side the fire. Bennett, Old W. Tale IV ch. 4 § 6.
1444. The discussion of the meanings of the various prepositions is a matter that is the business of the dictionary. It may here be noted, however, that the preposition required by the meaning is often replaced by another owing to the influence of a word related in meaning. Thus dislike to may, by the influence of like of or for, be replaced by dislike of, or for. In the same way nouns expressing or suggesting an



Of
298
action are often construed with the .same preposition as is required by the corresponding verb.
An interesting introduction to the book (cp. to introducé to). M. Liard, the eminent successor to Mr. Gréard (cp. t6
succeed to).
(Captain Mahan) is therefore in great measure responsible for the entry of the United States into world politics (cp. to enter into).
He is a regular contributor to that paper (cp. to contribute to). M. St. Brice regards the entry of England on to the scène as a decisive factor. Morning Post 5/8, 16.
1445. Hence the preposition is often by when the noun (or adjective) is connected in meaning with a passive verb.
A closed door which baffles attempts at ingress by Europeans.
(This) lies at the bottom of frequent complaints by employers of the general incompetence of the boys who come to them from elementary State-aided schools.
The thirty-four volumes octavo render this opinion untenable by those who can read. Birrell, Obiter Dicta.
1446. Some prepositions are frequently used without any definite meaning being attached to them, or even any meaning at all. Thus in the town of Hamburg the preposition of has no meaning; but it has the grammatical function of connecting town and the proper name. To insist on a condition conveys a clear meaning, but no clear meaning is attached to on here.
We shall treat of those prepositions only that have definite grammatical functions. They are of to, and for; less definitely grammatical are by and with. It may be noted that the first three have weakened forms: [ov, te, forj.
°' 1447. The chief grammatical function of the preposition of is to make words into adjuncts of a noun. When of makes a word into an adjunct it sometimes has a meaning (She died of grief), but this is exceptional, and hardly ever



294
Prepositions
occurs with nouns. In accordance with 1444 we may have the same meaning when the of- adjunct is construed with a noun: within a stone's throw of his land. Of is exceptionally used, in literary English, to express the agent in a passive construction, the usual preposition being by.
A wretch forsaken of God and man.
Freeman, Morman Conquest. Everything seems to be done of those who govern Spain to keep travellers out of that country. Daily News, 10/11,1898.
Perhaps of also has a meaning of its own (out of) in the emphasizing combinations of all things, of all men, of all others; although of is now frequently understood as an equivalent öf above, which is sometimes substituted for iti). See 1452.
Maggie dreaded Tom's anger of all things.
Eliot, Mill on the Floss I ch. 5. "Oh, my dear Mr. Arabin," said she, "have you never sat down yet? I am so distressed. You of all men too."
Trollope, Barch. Towers ch. 38. It is a time of all others, when Want is keenly feit, and Abundance rejoices. Dickens, Christmas Garol L
I shall like it above all things. Kipling, Gadsbys.
1448. An of- adjunct may qualify a preceding noun and may serve all the functions of the attributive genitive (883). It may be used with those nouns that can also take a genitive as well as those that cannot, but only as an attributive (not a predicative) adjunct. Of- adjuncts are more frequent than genitives to express the 'objeetive' relation. See also 889 ff., 1094 ff., and 1463 f.
The average height of a Chinaman is four inches less than that of an Englishman. Sweet, Elementarbuch.
The legs of the table are quite grey with dust.
1) Poutsma U, p. 1027 ff.



Of
295
In a sense all social problems lie behind that of education though they react upon one another.
Times'Ed. S. 19/10, '16.
The end of his candle of tallow Lorna Doone ch. 1.
His eyes were franker and simpler even than the eyes of Edwin, and his lips seemed to be permanently parted in a good-humoured smile. Bennett, Glayhanger I ch. 1 § 2.
Punch, Jan. 1912, quoted: «Utmost Limit", "Offer of Britain to Ireland", Headlines in an Australian paper, and commented: It seems to go beyond the limit3).
1449. Of- adjuncts may also serve other functions than those of the genitive (o). These adjuncts are also used predicatively (b).
a. An army of three million men. A floor of wood or tiles.
A house of cards.
A thing of my own making.
A thing of his own creation.
In his Preface of otherwise lively optimism Sir Arthur Quiller-Couch expresses one doubt. Athen. 21/12, '12.
b. The floors were of tiles.
The flowers are of a beautiful colour. The birds have no fear of me; am I not also of the brown brethren in my sober fustian livery.
Fairless, Road-mender L It is not uncommon, in scientific grammars of present English, to call these constructions with of: genitives. Thus a partitive genitive is distinguished (a pound of riee), a genitive of material (a house of cards), a genitive of definition (the University of Oxford), etc. The reason for this is that in related languages (including the earlier stages of' present
1) Compare 1749.
2) To avoid 'misunderstanding', Punch would evidently have preferred: Britain's Offer to Ireland.



296
Prepositkots
English, i.e. Middle and Old English) a genitive was really used in these cases. But it is the business of a grammar of prèsênt-day English to show what the function of the genitive is how, not to mix this up with the functions of the genitive in earlier English. If the writer of a descriptive grammar of present English does his duty, he shows the interesting fact that the genitive in present English is far more restricted in its functions than in the older periods. There is no need, whether practical or seientific, to hide this fact, and the whole procedure seems to be due to a mistaken idea of the use of historical grammar. See also 1464.
1450. Special mention may be made of the of- adjuncts which repeat the noun of the headword. They are used to express an extreme or intense degree and may, for convenience, be distinguished as intensifying adjuncts.
a. He is in short a Latin of the Latins, who went to study the Teutonism of the Teuton on the spot *).
Times Lit. 21/9, '16. Lord Midletón's attitude was significant. He is a Conservative of the Conservatives, yet he strongly supports a more active scrutiny of War office expenditure.
Daily News, 21/6, '15. Jim recognised that the girl before him — whether European or not — was an aristocrat of the aristocrats.
"Vere Shortt, Lost Sheep, London 1915, p. 91. Southey was in 1830 a Tory of the Tories.
Dicey, Law and Opinion p. 223. Alcibiades took up the interest of the people, posing as a radical of the radicals. Goodspeed, History p. 172.
b. Mr. Kearton, the pioneer of pioneers, is no exception to this rule. Athenaeum, 19/6, '15.
Is it not wonderful — nay, is it not the marvel of mar veis —
1) Note the ontward parallelism (Latin of the Latins, Teutonism of the Teuton) which sounds important although there is no meaning behind it.-



Of
297
that human life has reached such a high point of public and private organization? Gissing, Ryecroft, Summer VI.
He is the strong man, the white man of white men.
Mc. Neill, The Egregious English p. 10. Do you not know in your heart of hearts that she was not suited to be happy as my wife?
Trollope, Framley ch. 30, p. 296. When the hour of hours seemed to have struck, when even the most sanguine were giving orders which should safeguard the retreat of the guns, what was Tommy doing? Quoted,
Times Lit. 16/3, '16. And certainly, at the period when Mrs. Baines represented modernity, castor-oil was still the remedy of remedies.
Bennett, Old Wives' Tale, I ch. 3 § 4.
The quotations above under a illustrate the predicative use of the constructïon (not of the adjunct only). In them the repetition serves to emphasize the intense degree of the quality expressed by the predicative noun, which is preceded by the indefinite article. In the quotations under b the repetition has not exactly the same function; it expresses the greatest, strongest, etc. specimen of the class.
1451. The predicative use is sometimes emphasized by the absence of the article. But the nouns, in this case, can also be looked upon as adjectives.
Nevil Beauchamp, the hero of his most political novel, is Badical of the Radicals. Montgomery, Problems I, 54.
At one time his utterances are radical of the radicall); at another his radical friends are appalled and struck dumb by his apparent apostasy. Camb. Hist. of Engl. Lit. XHI, 21.
The writer analyses with great skill the phenomena of what is usually called the Englishman's hypocrisy, and as
1) Note the singular: radical is evidently looked upon as an adjective converted .into a noun.



298
Peepositions
English of the English is able to showexactly what it is of fact and delusion that produces the familiar manifestation.
Pilot 7/3, 1903.
Beppino in his secundum artem suit, very tourist of very tourist, walking about the deck.... Vance, ch. 43 p. 448.
Henley railed at his country and generation but for all that he was English of the English. Academy, 17/8, '12.
1452. To emphasize that we have the greatest, most important, etc. of a class, the noun in the adjunct is sometimes preceded by all. Compare 1447.
Everything is quite satisfactory. And this night of all nights you must dine with me. Wells, Country p. 142. Lacking no virtue except the virtue of all virtues—success.
Crawford, Lonely Parish ch. 2.
1453. It has been stated that it is the function of prepositions to make a following word into an adjunct. Of differs from all other prepositions in that it sometimes makes a preceding noun into an adjunct; thus in a paund of butter it makes pound into an adjunct of butter. In this way of is specially used after nouns expressing number, quantity, or weight. Compare 69 f., 820, 1116, 1256, 1309.
A braee of partridges; a gross of pens; a pair of pistols; a number of horsemen; a lot of people; the rest of the world.
I have got dozens of plants here that are supposed not to grow in a garden. Sweet, Spoken Engl. p. 70.
A cup of tea; a pound of rice; a slice of ham; a shipload of wheat; a quarter of an hour; a third of a pound.
She thought that it ought to have no end of an effect in drawing closer the ties that bind. Cinderella ch. 17, p. 192.
"I think you might have warned me," returned the other, with a touch of sullenness. Stevenson, Dr. Jekyll p. 13.
And just at that point, a certain sinister block of building thrust forward its gable on the street. ib. p. 5.



Of
299
1454. The attributive function of the nouns has caused some nouns expressing a definite number to be used without of but only when they are in the singular. Hundred, thousand, million are regularly so used. It is also frequent with score, dozen, and half, especially in spoken English.
A hundred men.
From the half dozen or so lives and reminiscences.
Mair, Eng. Lit. p. 140. In about ten years he produced a couple of dozen of comedies, farces and burlesques.
Millar, Mid-eighteenth Cent, p. 152. The age of man is three score years and ten. Some two score of obsolete verbs. Athen. 1/U, '13. Pestilence swept off half his men.
1455. Of must be used when the headword is preceded by another qualifier (a), or when it is a pronoun (b).
a. A dozen of these apples. A score of my books.
Half of these old priests, thought Michael, were probably puppets who did not understand even their own cracked Latinity. Sinister Street p. 678.
b. A hundred of them were rotten.
I had forgotten half of it before I got there.
On the use of the number-form of dozen, etc. see Number of Nouns.
1456. Closely related to the attributive use of nouns of definite number is that of bit, kind, sort of1).
See also 820 ff. on the plural of these combinations. And you're a bit of a botanist too.
Meredith, Amazing Marriage ch. 6 p. 69.
1) If the noun is used predicatively with a more or less clearly adjectival meaning, as in the first quotation, hit of, etc. may be considered adverbial adjuncts.



300
Prepositions
That grandfather had always been a sort of satisfaction to - mother. Cotes, Ginderella ch. 1 p. 7.
It gives one a last straw kind of feeling. ib. ch. 6 p. 60.
1457. The adjunct-character of kind or sort in a sort of hero, etc, is also shown by the fact that it can be made into a formal adjunct; a hero of a sort, also: a hero of sorts.
In the young man who figures as a hero of sorts we get the record of shrewd observation. Athenaeum 3/10, '14.
1458. Of also makes pronouns, especially something into an adjunct of the noun that follows. Of is similarly used after much and little. See 1433 on something, 1438 on somewhat, and also the sections on the Conversion of Adjectives.
When he recovered he found himself, to his great surprise, something of a hero. Shorthouse, Inglesant ch. 8 p. 94. I am something of a socialist.
Quoted Dicey, Law and Opinion p. 272. The horticulture of windows (in London) is as much of a fine art as the horticultures of the enclosures in London.
Escott, England I, 133. Mowbray's thoughts, too, I could see. He was thinking that Haddon's manner showed too much of the specialist.
Wells, Country p. 166. Tennyson was too much of the impressionable poet to be able to escape being influenced by the chaotic ferment of a century in which he lived. R. P. Assoc. Annual (1905) p. 26. Stella was more of a tie than a companion.
Sinister Street p. 159.
Similarly after what. See the sections on Independent Relative Pronouns.
Even so what it contained of ability to vex other people that last hour hung a little heavily upon the enthusiasts.
Sinister Street p. 576.



Op
801
f459. All and both, like the nouns of definite number discussed in 1454, may take of, but are also found withont.
Barbara had been brought up to a great exigency, and it naturally filled all of her mind.
Cotes, Cinderella ch. 13, p. 148.
But after all, important as are the subjects of study and the machinery for pursuing them, all of this is subordinate to the spirit which should direct and inspire the whole.
Times Ed. S. 7/9, '16.
I rather wish you wouldn't talk quite so easily about all of that. , Sinister Street p. 602.
All of us are learning to comprehend the German national psychology. Times, Ed. S. 5/10, '15.
Both of these possibilities must be taken into account.
From both these dangers she was saved by the Church.
Wakeman, Introd. p. 105.
We are all (both) convinced of it.
They were both of them older by a year or more than Michael and Alan. Sinister Street p. 167.
See further the sections on all and both in the chapter on Indefinite Pronouns.
1460. Of also serves to make a preceding geographical class-noun into an adjunct of the following proper name.
The town of Rotterdam; the village of L.; the kingdom of Holland; the Isle of Wight.
1461. Lake generally precedes proper names without of. Names of lakes that take their name from a town often take both constructions. River, Mount, and Cape never take of.
Lake Erie; Lake Superior; Lake Geneva; the Lake of Geneva. The River Thames. Mount Snowdon. Cape Lozo. The Euphrates river became the eastern boundary of the Roman State. Goodspeed, History p. 345.



302
Prepositions
1462. In names of buildings, streets and roads of is never used when the proper name precedes the class-noun.
London Bridge. Piccadilly Circus.
Shaftesbury Avenue. Cowley Road. Oxford Street. Christ Church. York Minster. Westminster Abbey.
1463. When a noun serves to denote the class to which the other belongs it is often difncult to say which is the adjunct, which the headword (a). Sometimes, however, the first noun is clearly the adjunct (6). See also 1460.
a. The ceremony of marriage. The virtue of obedience. The vice of drunkenness. The fact of your meeting him. The circumstance of there being no one near. The hour of eleven.
b. "What a duck of a child," said Madaline.
Sidgwick, Severins ch. 7. I merely meant to make myself agreeable, — I can't help doing that, — and that goose of a Mr. Coxe seems to have fancied I meant to give him encouragement.
Gaskell, Wives II, 270. Clarence regarded the porch with a hostile air, made no secret that he thought it a fooi of a porch.
Wells, Harman p. 2. 'Tis only a lonely rogue's roost of a place.
Phillpotts, Beacon I, ch. 4 p. 29. And the lawyer, scared by the thought, brooded awhile on his own past, groping in all the corners of memory, lest by chance some Jack-in-the-Box of an old iniqxuty should leap to light tbere. Stevenson, Dr. Jekyll, p. 30.
The only other occupants of her third class compartment were a friendly looking man.... and his thin, dried-up, black-clothed cottage woman of an old mother.
Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 28.
But figure seems to be the headword in the following similar construction.
Kirby was a magnificent figure of a man.
Meredith, Amazing Marriage ch. 1 p. 5.



Of
303
1464. The construction in the preceding section may be compared with a genitive. Just as in my father's speech the genitive denotes the subject of a verbal sentence (my father is speaking, or will speak, etc), the noun in the of- adjunct denotes the subject of a nominal sentence in the eeremony of marriage (marriage is a eeremony) or a duck of a chüd (the child is a duck), or some Jack-in- the-Box of an old iniquity (an old iniquity is like a Jack-in-the-Box). See 883 and 1448 f.
1465. When a title of a person is followed by a geographical name the preposition originaUy served to make the following proper name into an adjunct, as in the archbishop of Canterbury. But the original meaning of the place-name is often forgotten, or at least not thought of; in this case it may be doubtful which of the two nouns is the headword.
The Prince of Wales. The Earl of Derby. The Marquis of Salisbury. Lord Morley of Blackburn.
1466. Of-adjuncts are also found after superlatives of adjectives referring to the noun in the adjunct.
The Misses Osborne had the best of governesses.
Thackeray, Vanity Fair. The meaning is clearly partitive in many cases: the best governess out of all possible governesses. This partitive meaning is sometimes emphasized by adding all:
Dr. Verrall, the most brilliant of all modern critics of Euripides. Murray, Euripides p. 8.
Further examples in 1552 ff.
1467. The partitive meaning is often absent, however. The result is that the superlative has the meaning of an absolute superlative.



304
Pbeposittons
The absence of the partitive méaning is formally shown when the noun in the o/-adjunct is in the singular; see 1553. In such a case the noun in the q/-adjunct is really the headword.
1468. Sometimes we have a combination of this construction with the one in which the noun is repeated (see 1450 ff.).
Little, indeed, can have escaped Mr. Northup's net; its meshes have not let the smallest of small fry through.
Times, Lit. 21/12, '17. Mr. Balfour talked the soundest of sound common sense last Friday. Times W. 24/8, '17.
One could easily bombard the superficial student with questions on which he would only be able, on the spur of the moment, to give the vaguest of vague replies.
Times, Lit. 26 4, '18. Plato, in many ways the most Greek of the Greeks.
Times, Lit. 23/9, '15. The clergy were taken from every class of society, from the relations of the king to the humble friar who was the poorest of the poor. Const. Essays p. 334.
Yet, the words were spoken by Samuel Johnson, who has been called the most English of all great Englishmen.
Times, Lit. 20/1, '16.
1469. In some cases an q/-adjunct competes with the appositional use of nouns.
The empire of Morocco takes its name from the city Morocco founded in 1062.
Margoliouth, Mohammedanism p. 20. (The Sultan of Turkey) is, however, in virtue of his title Cdliph, officially head of all the Moslems in the world.
ib. p. 17.
The title of Nabob.
The name of poet. The name Tommy Atkins. On other uses of appositional nouns, see the chapter on
Smtence-Structure.



To
305
To 1470. The chief grammatical function of to is to serve as a kind of prefix to the infinitive. To before the infinitive shows the nominal character of the latter, the infinitive without to being essentially a non-finite verbal predicate. In some cases the function of to is to express the final meaning of the infinitive. See the sections on the Infinitive.
The function of to may also seem to be purely formal when it is used with verbs that can also take an indirect object: to give money to a beggar = to give a beggar money. It should be considered, however, that the passive of these verbs never takes to (The beggar was given some money). Other verbs take an adjunct with to for which an indirect óbject cannot be substituted; and this to-adjunct cannot become the subject of a passive construction (to aseribe a thing to a person). This means that the to-adjunct is not a prepositional object but a real adjunct of place expressing direction. See 275.
147t. Another grammatical function of to is to serve as a substitute for an infinitive that has been mentioned (ProInfinitive). As such it occurs:
%„ as an adjunct to verbs.
You need not go to bed at 10 unless you want to.
Times, W. 13/2, '14. The (i.e. the heroine) makes me impatient at momentswhen I doubt if she was meant to. A. G. Bradley, Essays II, 28.
"I know it's a rather curious thing to say," she continued, as before; "and I'm not quite sure that I am putting the matter as I wish to." Patterson, Stephen Gompton, p. 233.
As a people we do not take kindly to being organized; and yet we shall have to learn both to do and to endure a great deal more of it than we ever thought to.
Times Ed. S. 20,6, '18. One day in the course of conversation Murray said he knew something of law, or at least be ought to. Daily Mail. Krmsinga, Handbook II. Accidence and Syntax. 2. 20



306
Prepositions
"60 and smack his head."
«Am I to really?" Sinister Street p. 101.
Lady Agnes can marry any one she chooses to.
Hume, Red Money p. 150.
2. after verbs that have an accusative-with-infinitive construction, both of the apparent and of the genuine type.
This sentence, strictly taken as it stands, would mean something that the writer by no means intends it to.
King's English.
"Look at poor B."
"I thought you told me just now not to."
H. James, Sacred Fount p. 25.
3. after nouns and adjectives.
I wanted to turn round and look. R was an effort not to.
Grawford, Uncanny Tales.
"Richard, my boy!" he said heartily, "congratulate me." — "I should be happy to if I could," sedately replied the hero, to the consternation of those around. Meredith, Feverel.
1472. Sometimes neither the infinitive nor to is used. This practice seems to be colloquial rather than literary. The construction is found after both classes of verbs mentioned in the preceding section.
a. I do not always reply to Georgiana, though I always could if I chose. Allen, Kentucky Cardinal p. 132.
"Why don't you do as you are told?"
"Because I don't choose." Sweet, Elem. no. 47.
Even Rose unbent, and Leonora thought how attractive the girl could be when she chose. Bennett, Leonora ch. 7.
I told her she should have gone fishing; she said she never wanted. Correspondent, Gaskell, Life of C. Brontë ch. ff.
He might have been a scholar if he had wished.
Times Lit. 10/2, '21.
'There is a spare table in my room," said he. "You could pop down there with your papers if you like, while the



To
307
change is being made, — or go home for ihe day if the man messing about would worry you — and you prefer."
Niven, Porcelain Lady, p. 24. But Michael's tiresome family never did what it ought.
Sidgwick, Severins p. 218. (They) don't know how to hold their tongues when they ought. Montgomery, Misunderstood ch. 1.
b. It would have been so very bard to go away when he told her not. Trollope, Wortle ch. 19.
"I will go if Cynthia wishes me," said Molly.
Gaskell, Wives JU, p. 30. .... to make our whole enumeration as illustrational as we wish it. Henry James, Times Lit. 19/3, '14, p. 133.
"Won't Milly sing?" Themlow asked. "Certainly, if you wish," Leonora responded *).
Bennett, Leonora ch. 7.
Compare also the following.
There are many Cleopatras in History — a round dozen in fact — but there is only one in Romance; and we should have thought it impossible to make that one dull, if Mr. Weigall had not shown us how. Times Lit. 18,6, '14.
1473. To also has a more or less grammatical function when it is used before a noun or pronoun to show that this has the function of an indirect object; but see 1470. To must be used in this way when the function is not shown by the wordorder. See Sententx-Structure and Word-Order.
For 1474. For has a purely grammatical function when it helps a noun (or pronoun) to express the subject of an infinitive; see 379 ff.
By 1475. By has a grammatical function when it is used
1) In this case the accusative (her) is not expressed either; but we could also supply it, which is used in the preceding instance.



308
Prepositions
to denote the agent of a passive verb: It was done by a good carpenter.
The agent is usually a person, but not invariably.
Soon after the events of which I gave an account in my last paper, I was summoned home by my father's illness.
Gaskell, Cranford p. 128.
With 1476. With has been shown to have a purely grammatical function in the absolute-participle construction (561). This same function occurs in other absolute adjuncts; see the sections on these adjuncts in the chapter on Sentenoe-Strwture.
The country was apparently peaceful, but, with the Conqueror away, risings broke out.
Hist. of Every-day Things I p. 8.



COHJUNCTIONS
1477. Words are called conjunetions if they serve to join parallel parts of a sentence (i. e. parts that have the same function in the sentence, e.g. two subjects, two adjuncts, etc.), or two sentences or clauses.
The functions of conjunetions are best discussed in treating of the sentence; see the chapter on Sentence-Structure. It bas already been pointed out (989 ff.) that the difference between prepositions and conjunetions may be purely formal; see also 1806.
1478. It is convenient to make a few remarks here on the form of conjunetions. As is the case with prepositions, they do not really form a separate class of speech. Many of them are also used as adverbs, e.g. once, directly; before, after, since; the last three words are also used as prepositions. Some words, however, are used as conjunetions only, such as and, because. By far the most important conjunction to join clauses is that; its functions are so many because it has no meaning (compare the preposition of).
1479. That is also frequently joined to a word to show that it is a conjunction. In this way adverbs may become conjunetions, e.g. so that; also prepositions, e.g. in that; or participles, e.g. seeing that (compare 571).
When that joins a clause to a noun it is generally looked upon as a relative pronoun (see 1126). When the word to which that refers has a general meaning (e.g. by the time



310
CoNJUNCTIONS
that he had finished) the noun tends to form a compound with that so that we may look upon by the time that as a compound conjunction (equivalent to when). The conjunctive character of such comhinations is still plainer when they are used without a conjunctive word. Some are used without the definite article: in case, which is only apparently less compound than because. Nouns without a preposition may also develop a conjunctive function. Front position of such nouns often points to their function too, for they are in that case separated from the clause in which they would serve as adverb adjuncts if we looked upon them as nouns.
By the tfme that Wildeve had reached her name the blankness with which he had read the first half of the letter intensified to mortification.
Hardy, Return of the Native II ch. 7.
By the time the second bottle of champagne was emptied, I feit as if I had been drinking liquid fire.
Gollins in Select English Short Stories II p. 153.
In case this way of putting it should cause uneasiness, let me add that I am not a criminal.
De Morgan, Vance ch. 10.
My Father and Mother never could come to a clear understanding about what had disagreed with my Father the day he lost his situation at Fothergill's 1). ib. ch. 1.
The same warmth glowed up in her the moment her eyes opened % Galsworthy, Freelands ch. 14.
Last time I took it (viz. a medicine) I went to bed and slept it off. Wells, Country of the Blind p. 454.
The king motioned Inglesant to approach him, and the Jesuit explained the reason he had been sent for.
Shorthouse, Inglesant ch. 9.
See also the sections on Composition.
1) There would probably be a slight pause before the noun here, too: this points to the word being a conjunction.



ADDEÏÏDTJM
Mention might have been made, in the chapter on Pronouns, that deictic that and also some are used as adverb adjuncts of degree, in familiar (perhaps rather vulgar) English.
"Of course it wasn't a civil remark, in the manner of speaking," said my Mother, "but your Father, my dear, was that simple and honourable himself he never had a suspicion of guile." de Morgan, Vance ch. i.
Here's a young lady beautiful as roses and that accomplished and that thoroughbred she makes an honest tradesman feel like dirt. Hetty Wesley by "Q" p. 203.
It used to amuse me some to find the slave-holders
wanted more territory. Oxf. Dict.
"By Jove, Garuthers," said Lovelace, from Harding's wellbehaved dormitory, "that man Tester is some lad."
Waugh, Loom of Youth JU ch. 1.
In the last quotation some is an adjunct to a predicative noun, which has an adjectival function; it seems necessary, for this reason, to look upon some as used adverbially.






























ENGLISH ACCIDENCE AND SYNTAX
2



BË1



A HANDBOOK OF PKESENT-DAY ENGLISH
E. KRUISTNGA
PART II
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE AND SYNTAX
2
FOUKTH EDITION
KEMINK EN ZOON
OVER DEN DOM TE UTRECHT
1925
BY



First published in 1911. Second Edition in 1915. Third Edition m 1922. Fourth Edition (in three volumes) in 1925.



Note to the Fourth Edition. — In this volume a couple of pages have been added on Conjunctions. The sections on the ArticUs and on the Belative Pronouns have undergone considerable alteration. Otherwise the book is a reprint of the third edition, apart from numerous minor additions and corrections,
K.






CONTENTS
THE PARTS OF SPEECH 2.
Page
Nouns 3— 80
Introductory Note 3— 5
Number 6— 34
Form of the Plural 6—20
Plurals in a hissing-sound. Plurals in [-n, -on, -ren]. Plurals by vowel-change. Nouns with doublé plurals. Foreign Words: Classical. Non-classical. Gompound Nouns. Group-Plurals.
Use of the humber-Forms 20—34
Neutral Forms. Nouns of Measure precededby a Numeral. Attributive Nouns. Collective Nouns. Abstract and Material Nouns. Numeratives.
Case 35- 67
Common Case 35— 38
Genitive 38— 49
Form of the Genitive. Group-Genitive. The
Genitive of Names of Persons: Pre-Genitive. Independent Genitive. Post-Genitive. Predicative Genitive. Absolute Genitive. The Genitive of Names of Animals. The Genitive in Literary English. The Genitive of Nouns of Measure.



CONTFNTS.
Genitive Case in Compounds - 49— 52
Plural Attributive Nouns and Compounds . . . 52— 55
Number and Case of Attributive nouns .... 55— 60
Names of Persons. Nouns of Measure.
Genitive and Prepositional Adjunct 61— 66
Attributive Genitive. Post-Genitive. Predicative Genitive.
Absolute Genitive and Common Case 66— 67
Gender 67 " 80
Introductory
Nouns denoting Persons 68— 72
Nouns denoting Animals 73~- 74
Other Nouns 74~ 78
Gender in Literary English 78— 80
Pronouns 81—290
Introductory Note 81~ 84
Simple Personal Pronouns 84—116
Forms: Use of the Cases 84~ 90
Pronouns of the Third Person. 90— 99 Deictic Pronouns. Anaphoric Pronouns. Provisional Pronouns. Formal it.
Special Functions • • 100—103
Reflexive. Antecedent. Demonstrative.Indefinite.
Pronouns and Adverbs 103 111
So, it, and that 111-114
Simple Personal Pronouns in Literary English . 114—116
Co-mpound Personal Pronouns 116—123
Reflexive Use • • 116—119
Mn-reflexive Use 119—120
Adjectival Use 120—122
Simple and Compound Personal Pronouns ... 123
VIII



Contents
I'age
Possessive Pronouns 123—138
Attributive Possessives *23 ^
Form. Use. Subjective and objective Possessiveequivalent. Use in literary English.
Independent Possessives 131—138
Forms. Use. Post-possessive. Predicative Possessive. Absolute Possessive. Use in literary English.
The Emphatic Possessive 135—136
Attributive Possessives and the Definite Article . 136—138
Interrogative Pronouns 138—145
Forms and Use 138—143
Which, compared with who and what 143—144
Compound Interrogative Pronouns 1*5
Interrogative Adverbs
Relative Pronouns 146—173
Anaphoric Eelatives in Adjective Clauses .... 146—152 Who. Which. Gollective Nouns.
Relative Clauses referring to a Sentence 152-153
Independent Relatives 153—159
Noun Clauses. Adverb Clauses.
Compound Relative Pronouns 159—162
Relative Adverbs and Conjunctions 163—173
When. Where. Why. How. Compounds in -ever and -soever. That. As. But.
Demonstrative Pronouns 173—188
Deictic Use.. . . \ 174-178
This {.these) and that (those). Deictic this and that pointing to persons and things. This with reference to time. Neuter this and that for persons. Expressing notoriety. Antecedent that and those.
IX



Contents
lJage
'Referring Pronouns 178—187
Anticipatory and anaphoric this and these. Anaphoric that (.those). Difference between anaphoric this and that. Anaphoric this and that for persons. Use of the prop-word one. This much, etc. Such. Yon. Yonder.
Demonstrative Adverbs 187—188
Definite Article 188—199
Deictic the 189-192
Anaphoric the 192—193
Classifying the 193-196
Adverbial the 196-199
Gomparatives. Superlatives.
Indefinite Article 199—202
Absence of the Article 202—230
Gauses of the absence of the article. Abstract and Material Nouns. Plural Class-nouns. Singular Glass-nouns in a collective sense. Names of Meals. Names of places. Diseases. Time. Traditional phrases. Adjectives of language and colour. Proper Names. Vocatives. Adjective and Proper Name. Noun and Proper Name. Proper Name and Class-noun. Singular Glass-nouns. Form of Address. Preposition-equivalents. Nouns in Apposition. Verbal Phrases. Predicative Nouns. Dignity of, etc. Sort of, kind of. Noun qualified by (njever.
Indefinite Pronouns 230—279
AU 230
As an Adjective. As a Noun. As an Adverb. Any • • • 234—236
As an Adjective. As a Noun. As an Adverb. Both 236—237
x



Contents
XI
Each . PaSe
238—239
Either, Neither ooq g,0
As aöjectives and nouns. Either as an adverb. Either and Both.
mery 242-245
Every. AU, each, and every. AU, any, and every. No . .
245—250
No. No and Not. The adverb no.
One _
A '. : 250-267
As an Adjective. As an antecedent Pronoun. As an indefinite Personal Pronoun. As an anaphoric Pronoun. As an anaphoric Prop-word. Absence of the anaphoric Prop-word. As an independent Prop-word.
Other M.
267—274
As an adjective and as a noun. With the
prop-word one. Meanings of other. Some or
other, some.... or other. One or other, one....
or other. One.... another. One and anotker.
The one.... another. (The) one.... the other.
Each other, one another. Else.
Same 274-275
Several
275
S°™ 275-278
Meaning and Use. Some and any. See also Addendum on p. 311.
Sundry 27g
Thin9 278-279
Compound Indefinite Pronouns 279-290
Compounds in -one. Compounds in -body
and -one. No one. No one and nobody. None.
Compounds in -thing. Aught, naught, nought.
Compounds in -how, -where, -way, -when.