ÖJ AÜG 192?
28N
A GENERAL VIEW OF
THE NETHERLANDS
NUMBER XV.
EDUCATION by J. C. LIGTVOET



THE SERIES OP PAMPHLETS GIVING TOGETHER A GENERAL VIEW OF THE NETHERLANDS HAS BEEN PÜBLISHED FOR THE P. P. I E. 1915 UNDER DIRECTION OF THE COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT OF THE NETHERLANDS MINESTRY OF AGRICÜLTÜRE, INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE AT THE HAGUE
THIS SERIES CONSISTS OF THE FOLLOWING NUMBERS:
i. agriculture and cattle
breeding.
ii. nurseries.
Hl-Vn. industries. - p. doyer. mechanica L engineer. vih. tra de. - prof. dr. h. blink.
ix. fisheries. - dr. p. g. van
tienhoven.
x. currency and banking. -
paul sabel.
xi. holland on the seas. -
j. h. cohen stuabt. XH ports and waterways. v. j. p. de blocq van kuffeleb. civil engineer.
xiii. what to see in the ne¬
therlands from an engineer's point of view. - r. p. j tutein nolthenius. civil engineer.
xiv. engineers and contrac-
tors. - b. p. j, tutein nolthenius. civil engineer.
xv. education. - j. c. ligtvoet.
xvi. science.
ï üniversities. - dr. p. c. molhuysen.
2 theological instrdction. •
prof. dr. l. knappert.
3 a review of the law. - db. j.
VAN KUYK.
4 medical science. - prof. dr.
e. c. van leersum. 6 faculty of mathematics and natural science. - db. j. a. vollgraff.
6 MATHEMATICS. • PROF. DB. j.
CARDINAAL.
7 physic8 - DB. J. A. VOLLGRAFF.
8 ASTRONOMY. - PROF. DB. W. DE
BITTER.
9 MINERALOGY, GEOLOGY AND
RELATED BRANCHES OF SCIENCE. - PROF. J. VAN BAREN.
10 BOTANY. - DR. TH. VALETON.
11 ZOOLOGY. - DR. A. SCHIERBEEK.
12 CHEMISTRY.- DR W. P. JORISSEN.
13 CLASSIC AL LITERATURE. • DB» P.
C. MOLHUY8EN.
14 ORIENTAL LITERATURE. • C. VAN
ARENDONK. 16 NETHERLANDS LITERATURE. -
DB. H. J. A. BDYS 16 Hl STORY. - PROF. DR. P. J. BLOS. XVII. MENTAL, RELIGIOUS AND SOCIAL FORCES. - PROF. DB. H. RAVINCK. XYIIL LITERATURE. - JOH. DB MEESTER.
XIX. MUSIC. - 8. VAN MILLIGEN.
XX. FINE ARTS. - C. VETH.
XXI. ARCHITKCTURE. - A. W.
WEISSMAN. ARCHITECT.
XXII. PUBLIC HEALTH. - DB. M. W.
PIJNAPPEL.
XXIII. SPOBT. - JONKHEEB JAN
FEITH.
XXIV. THE WOMAN's MOVEMENT. -
DB. MIA BOISSEVAIN.
XXV. THE PEACE MOVEMENT. -
JONKHEEB DB. B. DE JONG VAN BEEK EN DONK.



/ r
EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS
BY J. C. LIGTVOEÏ, FUNCTIONARY IN THE EDUCATIONDEPARTMENT OF THE HOME-OFFICE.






EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS
by ■!. C. LIGTVOET, functionary in the education-
department op the home-office.
introduction.
* HARENTS, guardians, and all who by virtue of law or 1 agreement are entrusted with the care of children, are Tesponsible for it that the said children, in so far as they are living with thein, or under their care, or with themunder the roof of others, be given an efficiënt elementary instruction dn ring the years, and according to the rules, stated in this Act."
Thus run the opening words of the first article of the "Compulsory Attendance" Act, that bas been in force in the "Netherlands since January, 1901. Since that time every young Netherlander, in so far as he is not physically ormentally unfil, is given a regular elementary instruction, from bis 6th to bis 12lh or 13,h year at the least. This instruction ■eomprises: reading, writing, arithmetic, and an elementary Jcnowledge of'the Netherlands language, of national history, pliysical science and singing. To this are nsually added the ■elements of drawing and, for girls, of plain needlework, which two subjects are also taught in elementary schools.
As schools have been established in every coinmunity where, for about 24 hours a week, at least these ten subjects are taught, we find very few illiterate people in this country. We may still find some among the old people, but they are dying out.
Elementary education is divided into ordinary (gewoon), liigher elementary (uitgebreid) and yet more extended (meer uitgebreid) elementary instruction. We need hardlygointo details bere concerning the meaning of ordinary elementary instructioa. ït is the instruction given at the ordinary •day schools, indispensable to everyone, no matter what his future career may be, and solely destined to furnish the
3






general education needed by the entire population without exception whatsoever. According to the law, this instruction should tend to develop the intellectual faculties of the children along with the Christian and social virtues, whilst teaching them the various useful accomplishments required. As a rule these schools have a 6 years' course.
Schools for higher elementary instruction usually have a seven or eight years' course; those of the wider elementary instruction one of nine years' duration. These latter schools have a more extensive program than the ordinary elementary schools. Besides the above-mentioned branches, tuition is there given in two or three foreign languages (French, German and English), and in mathematics and some other subjects besides, of which more will be said later on. These schools are for those who need more than the ordinary elementary instruction to prepare them for their career in life, whilst not requiring the wider course of secondary education. Hence they aim at a final education; they are, however; also attended by the future pupils óf the higb school, as the exact point of connectionbetween the elementary and the high school has not been established by law.
Mr. Thorbecke, the father of the Secondary Education Act still in force today, defined the realm of higher education in the following words as far back as 1862: "If we consider elementary education as the instruction of the people, forming, as it does, the beginning of knowledge, and being destined for all alike, and higher education as d&sjined for the small number of those preparing for a profession or employment for which a scholar's training is needed, then the intermediate realmu)f secondary education is for that numerous portion of citizens which is above elementary instruction, and strives for general knowledge and culture, preparing for the various professions of our busy social organization".
This wide realm eomprises various kinds of schools providing a general education as well as for a more direct preparation for one or more trades or professions. The general education is given at the so-called "hoogere burgerscholen", high schools with a three and a five years' course
5



Private elementary school at The Hague.
Private elementary school at The Hague. Corridor and stairs.



respectively. These schools provide the instruction needed for official Government posts, or for some commercial position, etc The matriculation certificate of the high school with a five years' course, entitles the possessor to a continuation of his studies at the University in medecine, chemistry or engineering.
The real preparation for the study at a university, howeyer, is given at the gymnasium (Latin or Grammar School).
Although special high schools providing a similar edu-
Private school at The Hague. First class.
cation exist for girls, we find that now-a-days many girl pupils attend the high schools originally meant for boys exclusively.
The more direct preparation for various trades also falls under the domain of this secondary education, where an earnest effort is becoming manifest to make theorygo hand in hand with practise. This is especially evident in arts and crafts schools. The main purpose of these schóól» ia
7



the making of workmen who thoroughly know their craft. Besides the practical training, which could formerly only be acquired in the workshop of the employer, the pupils are taught the theory of the trade, the so-called professional drawing; moreover, by way of continuation of what they learned in the elementary school, they get lessons in the Netherlands language, arithmetic, and mathematics. This sound pedagogy, which at the same time forms the man in the future craftsman, is followed in all schools preparing for some trade or other, or for agriculture, commerce, or navigation.
Once the years of elementary education are over, higher elementary education is not compulsory in this country. When the Compulsory Education Act was passed, an attempt was made to also include attendance at the continuation school, the so-called "herhalings-onderwijs", but this attempt failed. Every municipality was, however, charged to pro vide higher elementary schools.
EL EM EN"TARY EDUCATION.
Elementary education in the Netherlands is regulated according to the Act passed in 1878, which is still in force in its main point, however many alterations and additions it may have undergone on various matters of principle. According to that Act, every municipality has to furnish the opportunity of obtaining efficiënt elementary instruction, given by certificated teachers which the Town Council appoints. These are the "public" or undenominational elementary schools, open to all, and where the teacher is not allowed to teach, do, or allow anything that is not in keeping with the respect due to the religious principles of any sect. Besides these, we have the "special" or private elementary schools, established and kept up by religious denominations, societies, institutions, or private persons. Since the Constitution was revised in 1848, teaching in this country is free, except for the control of the magistrates regarding the capability and the morals of the teachers. Up to that time administrative permission was needed for the institution of
8



State training-college for teachers at Harlem.



free and financially independent schools, which permission was not easily obtained. In those days the magistrates were even too strict. No tracé of that fear for the freedom of teaching remains. Today we find the private (usually denominational school) and thé "public" or undenominational school side by side everywhere; they have about the same curriculum, and the staff of the private schools has to come up to the same Standard of efficiency as that of the undenominational school. If a private school teacher should spread any doctrines tending to the corruption of morals, or inciting to disobedience to the laws of the land, his authorization to teach can be taken from him.
In 1913 this country numbered 3,322 undenominational schools for elementary education, with 562,125 pupils, and 2,199 private schools with 381,081 pupils. This means a total of 5,521 elementary schools, wit 943,206 pupils. The total number of inhabitants in the Netherlands at the end of that year was 6,114,302.
Instruction was given at all these schools, during at least twenty hours a week, in:
(a) reading,
(b) writing,
(c) arithmetic,
(d) the rudiments of the Netherlands language,
(e) „ „ „ national history,
(f) n •> „ geography,
(g) „ „ „ physical science, {li) singing,
(i) the first exercises in freehand drawing, (j) callisthenics and gymnastics, and (4) plain needlework for girls.
Private schools need not include in their program the subject mentioned under (J). Undenominational schools can obtain a dispensation from teaching it for a maximum each time of five years. ,
At many schools, undenominational as well as private, tuition in one or more of the following subjects is also given:
10






(I) the rudiments of the French language, (m) „ „ * n German language, (n) „ „ „ „ English language,
I n n general history, (p) „ „ „ ma thematics, (q) freehand drawing, (r) the rudiments of agriculture, 00 a » » gardening, (£) gymnastics, and (m) fancy needlework for girls.
The governing body, either of the undenominational or of the private school, is absolutely free in its choice of the abovementioned optional subjects. The local needs and wishes are of course always considered. In agricultural and gardening centres subjects (r) and (s) will be included, whilst near the frontiers and in the centres of population foreign languages and mathemathics will be preferred. The denominational private schools include the religious teaching with the obligatory branches, whilst some schools, undenominational as well as private ones, teach over and above the obligatory subjects manual work (Slöjd).
At the primary schools, instruction is given according to a curriculum previously drawn up by the head of each school. That of the undenominational school is subject tothe autborization of the Town Council and of the district inspector; that of the private school does not need any authorization, it is simply reported lo the Board for State control of schools. A'time-table of the lessons and the distribution of the various subjects over the school hours is hung up in every school. The principal of an undenominational school is bound to see to it, in regulating the schoolhours, that the children can at certain hours attend the lessons in religion given by religious instructors, which Jatter do not belong to the staff of the school.
As we have already said, the curriculum of the primary school, besides the obligatory subjects of elementary education, can also include the teaching of the optional branches given under (Z) to (t). Wherever a high school education was available, the legislator meant the elementary school to
12



confine itself to the subjects (a) to (k), and casu quo to teaching the pupils so much of the French language as they need for their entrance examination, at the age of 13 or 14, into the high school or the gymnasium. At many elementary schools, however, especially during the last ten years, the curriculum has been so much extended, within the limits of the law, that they can no longer be reckoned among the elementary schools. These schools, which have acquired a place of their own in the education system, differ from the others in three paints: (1) the branches in which tuition is given, (2) the years their course numbers, and (3) the final aim of the schools.
At the start, the subjects are those of the ordinary elementary school, but after the six years' course of the elementary school, this instruction is continued in a three years' course, especially instituted for the purpose and including instruction in two or three foreign languages (French, German and English), and in mathematics. Here the not very marked line between primary and secondary education is often very nearly approached. As the teaching at these schools is not, as at high schools given by special teachers for every branch, but by class teachers, the M. U. L. O. (More Extended Primary Education) school is much frequented by pupils who would otherwise receive their final education at a high school with a three years' course, but for whom that school, for pedagogical reasons, is less advisable. From this we see that the "M. U. L. O." School is not only meant for pupils for whom primary education is an inadequate preparation for the social career, whilst they yet have no need of high school education, but also for those who are not so intellectually developed as to be able to follow the high school course. Future minor officials, employés in commercial offices, etc, receive their general education at this kind of school, of which our country in 1913 counted 547 altogether, viz. 227 public or undenominational and 320 private schools.
13



continuation schools. (Herhalingsonderwijs).
The instruction given at continuation schools is for those pupils who, on leaving the elementary school, get no more school training. It is given in the evenings, and preferably in the winter months. The municipalities areboundto arrange a course of lessons during that period, which course must comprise 96 lessons. Literally speaking this education is no "repetition," as it is called in Netherlands, but rather a continuation of what was learnt before. It should cover at least four branches of instruction, among which at least two should be of the ordinary school curriculum. The other subjects are optional; the leader of the courses chooses them in accordance with the profession or trade of the pupils. This freedom in the choice of subjects enables these evening schools to adjust themselves to the practical needs of life, especially in the towns, where the large number of pupils allows of variously organized courses.
At many of these evening classes reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, the elements of political economy and freehand drawing are taught. For girls plain needlework is added as a rule, and, in some places, also machinesewing, ironing, cooking, and washing. In agricultural or gardening regions care is taken that the pupils, after finishing the course, can profitably follow the agricultural and gardening winter courses, whilst in other places the evening classes prepare for the professional drawing school, or for the technical training of future artisans and craftsmen. There were 47,640 pupils of these evening classes inJanuary, 1913, viz., 39,958 in undenominational evening schools and 7,682 at private evening schools.
instruction in handicrafts.
"What is to be done next?" is the question many parents and guardians put to themselves when, at the age of 12 or 13, the children leave the elementary school. This question is of moment to the lower middle class, but no less to the poorer classes.
14



Some fifty or sixty years ago, when such children left the primary school, it was the custom to send them out into the world to earn their own living withont in any way preparing or training them for some trade or handicraft. Nowa-days even the lower classes recognize that for children of 12 or 13 the time for learning is by no mearis over, that on the contrary it is the very time when they need to be trained for the work that awaits them in the world.
Portunately, this need of being trained for trade or craft can be met. Curious to say, the arts and crafts schools in this country are not in their origin a Government concern; they were established on private initiative. This gave them the advantage that they were not bound to established regulations and rules in their development, but could easily adjust themselves to the needs of practical life. The lack of funds, however, proved to be a great obstacle at first. Gradually the general interest grew and contributions and subsidies from local and provincial boards came in The State did not lag behind, but gave advice and financial help. Government subsidies were granted, and in 1899 a special bureau of inspection was established for the arts and crafts schools. Owing, to a large extent, to the expert guidance of the present inspector, Mr. H. j. dkGboot, this instruction has been greatly developed. Arts and crafts schools were established everywhere and the existing ones were reorganized, so that now even the smallest towns provide well-appointed schools where young men can render themselves proficient in whatëver trade they prefer. If their attendance at these schools necessitates a railway journey, they can obtain reduced tickets from the railway companies.
Only those who can prove that they have successfully fihished at the elementary school, can enter the craft schools. The candidate should be between 12 and 16 years of age,and physically fit for the trade he chooses.
In contrast to the special professional schools, more than one trade is taught at the craft schools. At most of them theoretic instruction is given in drawing, the knowledge of materials, tools and instruments, in construction, physics, the Netherlands language, arithmetic and mathematics. These
!5



last four subjects form a repetition and continuation of what was taught at the primary school, so as to contribute to the further general development and to aid in practical life as well. Moreover, the problems in arithmetic and geometry are derived as much as possible from the trade of the pupil.
Practical instruction is also given. Special care is taken here to render the workroom of the school as much as possible like the well-appointed workshop of an employer.
As a rule, the course takes three years. Pupils who have folio wed this course with suocess, are given a testimonial accordingly. Many large institutions or intiuential employ-
Craftschool at Amsterdam.
ers demand such a testimonial of their hands before appointing them. The school has then laid the foundation for the making of the craftsman. The routine of the expert and the greater handiness can of course be only acquired through experience.
As we said before, more than one branch is taught at the craft schools. At many of them the instruction eomprises carpentering, painting, forging and turning. At some also the trade of mason, cabinet making, instrument making, typography, electrotechnics, etc, etc, are taught.
16



Special professional schools exist, however, where the instruction is organized on the same lines as at the craft schools. Others, again, have a slightly different character. At these latter the lessons are only given in the evenings, to young men who during the day-time work for an employer. This instruction also is theoretical as well as practical; it is given, however, at certain periods, regulated according to the requirements of the trade the pupil works at. In view of this, the duration of the courses at these professional schools varies greatly. Such schools exist for tailors, shoemakers, upholsterers, compositors, hairdressers, and textileworkers.
The pupils pay a fee at the craft schools as well as at the special professional schools. For the poor an exception can be made.
On December 318t, 1912, these schools numbered altogether 7,904 pupils, of whom 1,517 paid no fees. The age of these pupils varies mostly between 12 and 18 years. On the date mentioned above, 620 pupils were 18 or older; 1,802 pupils who left after completing the entire course, received the certificate. The subsidies amounted to: f 648,453 from the State, / 152,457 from the pro vinces, and ƒ 434,522 from the municipalities.
Besides the craft schools and the professional schools, schools for professional drawing have been instituted everywhere. Here, instruction is given in the evening, in professional drawing, to which is often added a theoretic instruction, organized according to the special local requirements.
The most powerful impulse towards these institutions was given by the boards of the trade unions, for their apprentices. Professional drawing is taught at these schools, whilst for the further general development of the pupils continued tuitionis given in the Netherlands language, arithmetic and mathematics. Many of such institutions very much resemble the so-called "Burger-avond-school" (middle-class evening school) where the instruction is also organized so as to meet the requirements of the trade. At the end of 1912 there were 282 of these professional drawing schools in the country, with a total of 17,393 pupils.
Although we see from the foregoing that the teaching
17



at the arts and crafts schools is built up, theoretically as well as practically, on the foundation laid by the primary school, this was not the intention of the legislator who drew up the Secondary Education Act. His idea was that the "future craftsmen and farmers" should get their general training at the so-called middle-class schools, that were to be day as well as evening schools. The law obliges every community of more than 10,000 inhabitants to maintain at least one ïöiddle-class day or evening school. A dispensation can be got from the obligation of keeping up a middle-class day school, however. With these day schools the legislator missed his aim; they were above the Standard of those they were meant for. The consequence was that, after finishing the course, the pupils considered themselves too good for the trade and preferred some administrative post. Gradually, therefore, these few middle-class day schools were converted into a different kind of educational establishment, usually mto high schools with a three years' course.
The middle-class evening schools were better adapted to the needs of the craftsman, which is probably due to the fact that these schools were free in the choice of their curriculum, which was imperatively prescribed in the case of the middle'-class day schools.
As a rule, the pupils at the evening school are taught the Netherlands language, arithmetic, mathematics, physics and inechanics, line and professional drawing. With this curriculum these schools have ensured the lasting interest of young craftsmen and artisans. In 1912 instruction was given at 48 middle-class evening schools, mostly in co-operation with the technical schools. The authorities facilitate this co-operation as much as possible, as it involves an immense economy of working expenses, by means of a joint use of the educational apparatus. One course lasts as a rule from six to seven months; the entire schooltime varies betweenatwo and a five years' course. In December, 1912, they were attended by 6,923 pupils, 6,425 of whom were already working at some trade. That year saw 958 pupils pass the final examination. All these middle-class evening schools were endowed by the State.
18



secondary technical schools.
The above-named craft and professional schools, destined as they are for the making of capable artisans, do not provide a. sufficiënt training for those who are to superintend the (ordinary workmen, or to act as elaborators and executors of Itheir superiors' projects. The training of these foremen and ibuilders, who stand between the workmen and the scientifi«ally-trained engineers from the Technical University, is only in the commencement stage as yet. During the last few ; years, however, technical secondary education has strongly ideveloped. Here also much is due to private initiative, which formed so important a factor in the developmentof technical •education. This has been especially marked since in 1904, under the Kuyper ministry, the Government manifested an interest in the question by projecting the establishment of a «entral secondary "technicum". Though these projects were not realized, they led to the founding of various secondary schools for technical education. In general that education is ■organized on the principle of decentralisation.
There are, for instance, the big technical schools at Amsterdam, for electrotechnics, mechanics and the sugar industry, and that of Dordrecht, where these same branches, plus naval architecture, are taught, as well as the textile school at Enschedé, the centre of the textile industry, where factory managers are trained. The schools of Harlem, Sneek and 'Utrecht provide a secondary technical Education in the building trade, whilst at the secondary school at Bois-le-Duc a technical art education is given. Secondary technical schools bave also been established at The Hague and Rotterdam.
From the very beginning there was a difference of opinion regarding the requirements of the entrance examina tion, and regarding the question whether a practical or a theoretical preparatory training was most needed.
The difficulty was solved by admitting pupils with a raainly theoretical, as well as those with a practical preparatory training. In connection with that fact every group is, if i need be, made to work affcer a program of its own during the i £rst few years. We see from this, that these schools are by no
19



Technical High School at Dordrecht.



means a continuation of the craft school. Pupils with a third form high school education, or its equivalent, can succesfully folio w the courses of the secondary technical school. In order to combine the theoretical and the practical preparatory training, an attempt is made at some of the craft schools to organize theoretical preparatory courses for the future pupils of the secondary technical school.
The Schools of Amsterdam and Dordrecht have a three years' course. During the first two years the instruction is mainly theoretical; during the third year the professional training predominates. After the second year the pupils must work during one year as workman in a factory or large workshop. If at the end of the course they successfully pass the final examination, they are given the final testimonial.
The secondary technical school for the building trade, at Utrecht, has a course of two and a half years. At the schools also the teaching is theoretical as well as practical, and leads up to a final examination.
We have already said that these schools owe their existence to private initiative. The State, the province and the municipality subsidize them, and supervise the curriculum and the range of instruction. For the rest the expenses are covered by the fees which the pupils are charged, and by the financial contributions of various patrons.
HIGH SCHOOLS.
The High Schools occupy a very important place in our system of education. They are a continuation of the elementary education, providing a general education culture, as well as preparing for various official posts, and callings, and for posts in industry, agriculture, commerce, etc. This is why so many pupils from all ranks of society prefer these schools. The Secondary Education Act of 1863 called them into life. In 1865 they numbered 1,418 pupils, and in ten years' time that number was doubled, so that at the end of 1875 the high schools counted 3,847 pupils, whilst in 1895 this had increased to 7,291, and at the end of 1912 to 13,309.
The law divides the high schools into schools with a
21



three and a five years' course. Both schools were to give the same instruction during the first three years. This aim, however, was not attained. The first three forms of the high school with a five years' course do not.form a complete whole in themselves; they are arranged with a view to the continuation of a fourth and fifth year. The third form of the three years' high school, however, furnishes final instruction, which cannot possibly run parallel with the third year of the other schools.
At the high schools with a three years' course the law enjoins instruction in: mathematics, the elements of physics and chemistry, of botany and zoology, of political economy, and of book-keeping; geography, history, the Netherlands language, French, English and German, calligraphy, freehand and line drawing, and gymnastics.
The tuition at the high schools with a five years' course eomprises the following branches: mathematics; the elements of applied mechanics; the knowledge of instrument» and of technology; physics and its main applications; chemistry and its main applications; the elements of mineralogy, geology, botany and zoology, and of cosmography; the foundations of the municipal, provincial, and State institutions in the Netherlands; political economy and statistics, especially of the Netherlands and her colonies, and her possessions in other continents; geography; history; the Netherlands, French, English and German languages and literature; the elements of commercial science, including knowledge of wares and book-keeping, calligraphy, freehand and line drawing and gymnastics.
Even on a superficial comparison of the branches at the respective schools, we see that a high school with a five years' course is absolutely different from one with a three years' course plus an additional two years
The law does not exact entrance examinations. As a rule, though, the pupils are only admitted after having passed an examination. If, however, the candidate is provided with a written declaration from the principal of his former elementary school, stating that he (or she) is qualified to follow the instruction at the high school, the
22



State high-school with three years' course at Coevorden.



entrance examination can be partly or entirely dispensed with. As numerous municipal and special high schools exist by the side of the State high schools, there is no generally binding order as to this question. The municipal and special high schools have been formed and are governed by private institutions and incorporated societies.
At many schools the promotion to a higher form requires aremoval examination, but here also nouniformity exists.
As the tuition at the high schools with a five years' course has been organized with a view to an officially instituted final examination, for which one universally binding program has been fixed, the tuition at these various schools is very much alike, whether they be State, municipal or private schools.
The final or matriculation examination is public, and conducted by a specially appointed commission in every province. It eomprises all the above-hamed obligatory branches of the five years' course, with the exception of calligraphy and gymnastics. In the opening clause of the examination programme the purpose of these examinations is expressed as follows:
"As the purpose of the final examinations is to find out whether the young people that go in for them have successfully followed the five years' course of a high school, or some equivalent course of instruction, the principal aim of the high school, namely, the forming of enlightened persons, possessing all the accomplishments required of the cultured man of today, should be kept most in view. The candidates must therefore be able to prove that they have by deep study acquired a sufficiënt foundation to prepare for any profession or calling, and that a many-sided development of their intellect enables them to profitably avail themselves of the experiences of practical life".
From this introduction to the matriculation program, stating the general aim of the five years' high school course, we see that candidates who got their tuition at other kinds of school are also admitted to this matriculation examination. The number of pupils from the high schools who went
24



in for it in 1912 was 1,227. Of these 1,037 gained the matriculation certificate, among whom 176 were girls; 190 pupils failed. In 1912, moreover, 128 pupils from other schools went in for the examination. Sixty-seven of them passed, and 61 failed.
Attempts have been made in the last few years to substitute these provincial examinations by school examinations; as long, however, as the present Higher Education Act remains in force the schemes of these advocates of examination reform cannot be realized.
For the high schools with a three years' course no generdUy binding programme of matriculation exists. These schools can therefore organize their curriculum in accordance with the local needs.
Although the high schools were originally meant only for boys, girls have been admitted to the State high schools since 1871. Since that time many municipal and special or private high schools admit girls too.
SECONDARY SCHOOLS FOR GIRLS.
Special secondary schools exist for girls that are often wrongly called high schools. The curriculum of these schools has not been regulated by the law; the legislator emphatically left this to their founders. Although the girls do not get a special training for any examination, save the matriculation examination of the school itself, many pupils manage after a short preparation to pass the examination needed for various posts. Numerous teachers at elementary or secondary schools, as well as at domestic science and cookery schools, many nurses, etc, received their training at one of these secondary schools for girls.
Those who were most fit, physically as well as intellectually, prepared for the matriculation examination of the high school or the gymnasium, in order to get admittance to the university studies. This had not been the original purpose for most of them; the general development at the secondary girls' school, however, led to a continuation of the studies.
25



At the end of 1912 there were a total of 17 of these high schools for girls. Most of them have a five years' course, ineluding tuition in the Netherlands, French, German and English languages and literature; geography, history, political economy. political science, mathematics, physics, calligraphy, drawing, needlework, aesthetics, hygiëne, bookkeeping and gymnastics. Some schools still include tuition in shorthand, history of art, singing and theory of education, though no uniformity exists in this respect.
The matriculation certificate of a secondary girls' school gives no admittance to other establishments for higher education. Some preparation is required for that, as we have already mentioned.
TECHNICAL AND PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS FOR GIRLS.
Quite another kind of instruction is given at the Technical schools for girls, and at the so-called Domestic Science and Gookery schools. These fall under the professional schools. At the technical schools for girls tuition is given in drawing, plain and fancy needlework, art needlework, lacemaking, cardboard work and bookkeeping, along with a repetition and continuation of the elementary instruction. At the domestic science and cookery schools is taught: household work, washing, laying of and serving at table, bookkeeping,. sick-nursing, tbe art of dressing wounds, physical science, and sometimes the nursing ofbabiestoo.
The total lack of proper regulations has led to years of absolute neglect of this instruction, a few commendable attempts of private institutions excepted. The first step towards a professional training for girls was taken in 1865, namely, the institution of a technical school for girls at Amsterdam. Not until eight years later was a similar school established at Arnhem; The Hague followed in 1876 and in 1885 Rotterdam. Twenty years were needed to call into life four technical schools for girls, all four resulting from private initiative. For a long time these remained the only ones of their kind. Now this educational branch has also been organized.
26



It is curious to note ho w this organization was arri ved at from below, without any official decrees and regulations.
The technical schools for girls all form a complete whole in themselves, so that they enable the girls to render themselves useful in their own sphere. The instruction in plain and fancy needlework, however, is directed so as to prepare for the Government examination and the qualification to
Technical School for girls at The Hague.
teach in the said branches. In later years the program of some of these schools has been gradually enlarged with branches of domestic training, from which resulted the technical and domestic schools combined.
The difficulty of finding a qualified staff led tothe establishing of courses for the training of teachers, which, as a rule, cover three years, though only a few schools give these courses. Most of them prepare for the post of housekeeper or lady's help, which training takes three years. The pupils must have finished the higher elementary school, and be at least 17 years old. If they pass the school examination, they get a testimonial. A registry office for qualified housekeepers
27



Commercial school with five years' course at Amsterdam.



helps in finding suitable posts, in hospitals, sanatoria, boarding-houses, boarding-schools, etc.
At several schools, too, the pupils can be trained as servants, whilst girls who already have a situation can render themselves proficient there in their free hours.
Nearly all these schools owe their existence to private initiative; they are endowed by the State, the Provinceorthe Municipality. These endowraents of course involve various conditions, so that gradually a fixed-line is being drawn for the further developrnent of this education.
COMMERCIAL SCHOOLS.
Whereas the elementary instruction forms a sufficiënt preparation for the technical schools, a more thorough training is needed for the commercial and agricultural schools. An efficiently organized commercial instruction was not arrived at in this country until the beginning of this century. Commercial schools existed in some of tne larger towns, but these usually served the local needs only.
Later on evening courses were organized, by various societies of commercial and office employees, where bookkeeping, foreign languages, and commercial correspondence were taught, but the pedagogie element was lacking in these courses. Now-a-days commercial instruction is given at numerous evening classes, and at special day schools. These latter generally form either a continuation of the high school with a three years' course, or represent the last two years of the high school with a five years' course, the three first years of which are given to the general high school instruction, while the last two are more especially devoted to commercial subjects. Since 1913, moreover, the Netherlands can boast of a Commercial University.
The evening classes can, of course, only provide elementary commercial education. These courses are given in numerous minor towns. They are frequented by young men who have had little more than the ordinary elementary tuition, and who already occupy some commercial post or
2»



are employed as artisans. Tuition is given in geography, commercial geography, bookkeeping, commercial correspondence, the rudiments of commercial science, the knownledge of wares, and the rudiments of commercial law. Besides this, Netherlands and foreign languages are also taught, as well as type-writing and shorthand.
The evening classes are either municipal or private concerns; they are nearly all endowed by the State or the province, and, in só .far as they are private, also by the municipality.
The more extended commercial instruction is given at the commercial day schools. These are of two different kinds: those based on a high school with a three years' course, and the special ones. Either of these includes a two years' course, the main subjects iri the curriculum being: bookkeeping and commercial arithmetic, commercial law, general commercial knowledge, political economy, political science, the Netherlands, French, German, and English languages, and commercial correspondence, commercial geography and history, physical science and knowledge of wares. Optional subjects are, moreover, Swedish, Norwegian, Italian, Russian, Spanish and Malay. The instruction is of a generally educational character. A professional training, in the sense of miniature commercial offices, is not given. As with the commercial evening classes, these schools are kept by the initiative of private institution, and societies; they are Stateendowed.
The Netherlands Commercial University is established at Rotterdam. It is directed by a private society and aims at giving a scientific commercial training in the widestseiise of the word No qualifications are required for attendance at the lectures, save that this can only be done by students possessing the high school or gymnasium matriculation certificate, or some testimonial equivalent to that. Ranged under five principal groups, the program eomprises the following subjects:
Economy and Statistics; the Science of Trade; Jurisprudence; Economie Geography and History; and the Technical Sciences. This instruction is destined to complete the training
30



Commercial and indnstrial school at Enschedé.



of future commercial men, and of people destined for the leadiug posts in industrial and other trades. This university prepares, moreover, for the Consular service.
AGRICULTURAL AND HORTICULTURAL INSTRUCTION.
Like the commercial, the agricultural education is given in separate courses, as elementary tuition in agriculture and horticulture, to young men already workingin that line. It is continued at secondary schools, and finally at the Higher School for Agriculture, Horticulture, and J?orestry, a State establishment at Wageningen.
Agricultural and horticultural winter schools have been established by the State in numerous towns where young farmers and gardeners can, at small cost, acquire the theoretical knowledge their trade requires. This instruction is purely professional. The needs of the agricultural and horticultural calling in the province or region where the school lies, are always taken into account. The course takes two winters, whilst a few lessons are added in summer if needbe.
Besides these State establishments tuition in agriculture, horticulture, and forestry is also given at private institutions^ where foresters, keepers, surveyors and foremen are trained. Most of these courses owe their existence to the Netherlands Heather Company (Nederlandsche Heidemaatschappy). They have a two years' course, including theoretical and practical instruction.
The State Dairy School at Bolsward (Friesland) offers butter and cheese makers an opportunity of getting a professional training. Only those pupils are admitted who are well versed in the practical side of dairy work. The tuition is theoretical only, and consists of a two years' course, after which an examination is held and certificates are given. This, therefore, is purely professional education too.
The more general kind of agricultural instruction is given: (1) for Netherlands agriculture, at the Secondary Agricultural School at Groningen; and (2) for Agriculture in the Colonies, at the Secondary Colonial Agricultural School at Deventer. The Agricultural School at Groningen
32



is for pupils from some gymnasium, high school or extended elementary school, who want to prepare themselves for the practical side of agriculture. The Groningen school has a course of two and a half years, that of Deventer one of three years. Por this school also, which more especially trains the pupils for practical life in the tropics, they need a few years of general education af ter leaving the primary school in order to pass the entrance examination. At both schools the instruction is theoretical as well as practical. Excursions are made, under the guidance of the teachers, to those museums and institutions which the pupils require to be acquainted with.
The scientific training of agricultural and horticultural teachers, etc, is undertaken at the Higher Agriculture, Horticulture and Forestry School.
NAVIGATION AND FISHERY SCHOOLS.
The maritime schools occupy a curious position. There are ten of them in this country, where young men, after the years of preparatory school attendance for their general instruction and a certain period (about one year) of deck service on board some sea-going ship, are trained for the mates' examinations that are held by a Royal Commission. These schools have courses for pupils who are quite new tö the seafaring profession, as well as mates' courses for the coastal traffic and transatlantic navigation.
Some twelve Fishery schools provide the skippers, mates and engineers required on the fishing vessels.
GYMNASIUMS.
The gymnasiums or so-called Latin schools, where the comparatively small number of those who need a scientific training get the preparatory higher education, can hardly be reckoned under what we are used to call the establishments for the education of the people. In many points, however, they resemble the high school with a five years' course,
33



Gymnasium at The Hague.



though the gymnasiums have a six years' course. They provide tuition in : Latin, Greek, Netherlands, French, German, English, history, geography, mathematics, physics, chemistry and natural history. These are the obligatory branches for all Netherlands gymnasiums. Hebrew and gymnastics are optional.
The curriculum of the gymnasiums and all that further pertains to these institutions has been regulated by the Higher Education Act of 1876. Here uniformity reigns suprème. Curriculum, school hours and duration of the course are the same at all Netherlands gymnasiums. Instruction in the twelve obligatory subjects is given according to the following time-table:
FORMS.
V. VI.
SUBJECTS.
I. II. III. IV. —
A. B. A. B.
Latin 8 6 6 6 8 5 8 4
is Jannary (till Isti
g 6 7 6 4 7 4 Jannary (aflerlitl
Netherlands 3 2 2 2 2 2 11
French 4 2 2 2 11 1 1
German — 3 2 2 2 2 1 1
January (afier Ist)
English — 3322 1 1
History 4 3 3 3 2 1 3 2
Geography 3 2 i [
Mathematics 4 3 3 3 2 5 2 6
Physics — — — 2 3 2 3
Chemistry — — — — —. 1 — 1
Natural History 2 2 — — — 2 — 2
Total number of
school hours a week: 28 28 28 28 27 28 27 26
The pupils are admitted when they are from 12 to 13 years of age, after an entrance examination on the branches of ordinary elementary instruction and French. In the first form, no tuition is given in Greek, German, English, physics
35



and chemistry. Greek and German are begun in the second forni, English in the third. The tuition in Natural History is suspended in the third and fourth forms, and in form V it is only given to the pupils of division B After the fourth year the pupils are divided according to their future studies. Those who wish to become theologians, literary men and lawyers, follow course A; those for medicine or physics go in for B.
When, at the end of the six years' course, the pupils pass the final examinatfe», they get the certificate qualifying them for the university studies. This matriculation examination is held at each gymnasium separately, and conducted by its own teachers, in the presence of three State commissaries having the right of veto. The matriculation examination for future theologians, literary men and lawyers differs from that for the physical and medical faeulties.
The tuition at the gymnasium is, as at the high school, given by special teachers for every subject. At their head stands the Rector, assisted by the Conrector, both having the university degree of doctor in the classics. The other teachers have either their degree, or a secondary education certificate for the branch they teach
Every community of more than 20,000 inhabitants is obliged to have a public gymnasium. Exception from this obligation can be obtained. In 1913 31 communities had their public gymnasium. In that year, moreover, 15 private gymnasiums existed, instituted on the initiative of private institutions or recognised societies. If they come up to the requirements of the law, these private gymnasiums can also grant the certificate qualifying for the university. The 31 public gymnasiums numbéred in 1913 2,636 pupils; the 15 recognised private ones a total of 1,594 pupils. In that year the matriculation certificate was granted to 249 pupils of public and to 131 pupils of private gymnasiums.
The public gymnasiums as, we have already mentioned, are kept up by the municipality, the private ones by the institutions or societies by which they are governed. The expenses are partly covered by the school fees (minerval),
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Penorninational training-college for female teachers at Zetten



which at the public gymnasiums may not exceed 100 guilders a year for every pupil. Both the public and the private gymnasiums are State-endowed.
Besides these, there are also a few gymnasiums without the "jus promovendi", a few pro-gymnasiums and some Latin schools. These institutions of preparatory higher education are not bound to the curriculum set for the gymnasiums.
LEGISLATIVE REGUL ATIONS.
For the proper understanding of the education system in the Netherlands, we will conclude with a short survey of the legislaüve regulations made in this respect.
Seperate Acts regulate the elementary, the secondary and the higher education.
The Elementary Education Act places the elementary education of the nation under the charge of the local authorities ; though private persons, institutions and societies are free to found and to maintain primary schools. The teachers at these private schools are subject to the same requirements, so far as qualifications and morals are concerned, as the undenominational school teachers. "With a few exceptions the same subjects are taught at the public or undenominational as at the private schools. The curriculum is drawn up by the head of the school. For the undenominational schools this curriculum, and the list of books to be used, is subject to the approval of the Burgomaster and Aldermen of the place, and the Government inspection authorities. The private school has a greater freedom in this respect. With a view to the State endowment, however, the curriculum and the timetable should be sent in to the Government inspection authorities, so that it may be ascertained whether they meet the minimum requirements.
Only qualified teachers (of both sexes) can teach in the school. Pupil teachers can only work in the school under supervision. The teachers get a training of at least four years, at training colleges and so-called normal schools, which are either government, municipal or private schools. The
38



instruction there given prepares for an examination that entitles the successtul candidate to a qualified teacher's certificate. The candidates must be 18 years or older. After two years of practical work as a teacher, they can go in for another examination entitling them to the certificate of head teacher. All these examinations are held in public. Every year the examination committees are appoiuted anew. At the head of every school there is a teacher of at least 23 years of age, and holding the head teacher's certificate. The number of assistant teachers varies according to the number of pupils in the school. If there are more than 40 pupils, there must be at least one assistant teacher, besides the head; for over 90 pupils two assistant teachers are required. Every 55 pupils over 90 require another assistant teacher. The maximum number of pupils at an undenominational school is 600. For the private school no maximum has been fixed. Lady teachers are chosen as a rule for the lower classes.
The staff of the undenominational elementary school is appointed and dismissed by the Council of the town where it is situated. These appointments are permanent; teachers may only be dismissed on the authorisation oftheprovincial government, against which appeal can always be made to the Crown. The staff of the State-endowed schools is appointed by the board of the institution or society governing the school. These appointments are also permanent. A temporary appointment at a private school can never be for more than one year. In case of dismissal, the teachers at the private schools can appeal to an impartial commission consisting of the governors and the staff of these schools.
The heads and the teachers of public or undenominational and private schools have a fixed yearly salary, which is raised from time to time. They are, moreover, entitled to old age and invalidity pensions. In ease of pre-decease, their widows and orphans are also entitled to the pension.
The schoolrooms must be built and fitted out according to the regulations made by the authorities, and which are about the same for public as for private schools.
The cost of the establishment and operation of undenominational schools is paid by the Municipality, and that
39



of the private elementary schools by their governing boards. Both branches of the educational organisation receive an equal State endowment. Financially weak communities, for which these expenses for elementary education would prove too heavy, can obtain an extra endowment from the State.
In order to meet the cost of the undenominational elementary education, the municipality is bound to charge the pupils school fees. Paupers and those who come upon the parish are as a rule exempt from this obligation.
A regular attendance at school is encouraged by the authorities, by means of public prizes and rewards The Compulsory Attendance Act prevents absolute as well as relative now-attendance.
The suprème inspection of elementary education lies with the Minister of the Interior, under whose direction it is carried out by three inspectors, 26 district school inspectors, and 128 "arrondissement" inspectors. The local supervision at every place is directed by the Burgomaster and Aldermen. The To wn Council is authorized to appoint a permanent commission, to ensure regular local school inspection. All elementary schools, undenominational as well as private ones, are at all times open to this school inspection. The teaching staff is bound to give the inspectors all information. regarding school and instruction that they may ask for.
The central organizations of private elementary schools, and especially denominational ones, have moreover instituted a special inspection service at all the schools bèlonging to the organization. This private school inspection is not authorized by the law.
As the establishment and operation costs of private schools can only be partially met from the State subsidies, and have to be covered by school fees and voluntary contributions, these schools have repeated hnancial troubles, far more so than the public or undenominational schools which are paid for entirely out of the public funds. In December, 1913, a Government Commission was appointed by Royal decree to inquire into what measures were to be taken towards a satisfactory solution of this difficulty, and towards ensuring an equal develoDment of nublic or
40



undenominational and private elementary instruction. This Commission is expected to send in its report in a few months' time.
Secondary education is regulated by the Act of May 2nd, 1863. According to this Act, those subjects pertain to secondary education which are taught at the schools falling under the said Act.
The Act mentions: Middle-class Schools, divided into Middle class day and evening schools; High Schools with a five and a three years' course respectively; Agricultural Schools, and Secondary Schools for Girls.
Commercial schools, Naval schools, Craft schools and Professional schools are not mentioned.
No one is allowed to give secondary instruction who does not possess the qualifications of capability and morals required by the law. Moreover, foreign teachers need the Queen's sanction.
Teachers workiug at the secondary schools get the title of "leeraar" (teacher or lecturer). They obtain the qualification to give secondary instruction after passing the examination held by a Royal Commission, and coinprising, besides professional knowledge, also the theory of teaching and education. The certificates to be had in the various branches of secondary instruction, are prescribed by the law. Those who possess a university degree of doctor in mathematics and physics, in mathematics and astronomy, chemistry, geography or mineralogy, zoology and botany, jurisprudence, political economy, or literature, are also duly qualified, The university examination of udoctorandus", and, for some subjects, of "candidaat", likewise qualifies for the giving of secondary instruction. The law states what certificates of qualification the teachers are to have for every subject.
The staff at the State schools for secondary instruction is appointed and dismissed by the Queen ; that of the municipal schools by the Town Council, that at the private secondary schools by the boards of the institutions or societies governing them. The staff of all the State schools are entitled
41



to old age and invalidity pensions on the civil service basis. In case of pre-decease, their widows and orphans are also entitled to the pension. Equally entitled to their own, or to the widow's or orphan's pension are all teachers at municipal and private high schools, middle-class schools and secondary schools for girls.
The municipal and private schools get State endowment, on certain conditions, regulated by the law. A school fee is taken from the pupils, to partially cover the working costs.
The suprème inspection of the secondary schools lies with the Minister of the Interior. It is carried out under his direction, by Royal-appointed Inspectors and by local committees.
No legislation regulations for the sc-called professional instruction exist in the Netherlands. The Government presented a Bill on the question in May, 1915. According to this Bill, Professional instruction shall be given at: (a) commercial schools, (b) naval schools, (c) fishery schools, (d) mining schools, (e) craft schools, (/) technical schools, (g) industrial schools, (i) schools for cookery and domestic science, and (j) at all institutions not mentioned under (a) to (c) that may by virtue of a Royal degree be counted as professional schools.
The curriculum and time-table of the State professional schools will be drawn up by the Home Minister, whilst for the curriculum and time-table of the municipal and of the State-endowed private professional schools general regulations will be made. Special certificates will be instituted, qualifying for the giving of professional instruction. Commissions will be appointed every year by the Minister, to hold examinations for the purpose.
As regards the State endowments to be given to the municipal and private professional schools, and the conditions these schools will have to comply with in order to obtain such endowmént, the Bill mentions a few general regulations which will have to be worked out in detail by the executive power, The measure further contains various
42



regulations regarding the pupil system and some general regulations for the teaching contracts.
The Bill charges the Minister of the Interior with the suprème inspection of the professional instruction. It is tobe executed under his direction by various inspectors. Local committees will, moreover, supervise the municipal and private professional education. The members of these committees will be appointed by the Town Council.
Transitional regulations will regulate the qualification of those who are teaching at professional schools when the Act enters into force, and who are not in possession of the certificates the Act requires.
It was not possible within the narrow space allotted to me to give a complete picture of the educational system in the Netherlands. This survey is necessarily brief; However, I hope I may have at least indicated that, as regards its national education, the Netherlands nation is active and occupies an honorable position among the cultured nations.
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Appendix. SuRVBY OP THE AMOUNTS (IN GUILDERs) SPENT ON THE VARIOUS RRANCHES OF NATIONAL - EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS DURING THE YEARS 1900, 1906 AND 1912.
Branches of Education. 1900. 1906. 1912.
Elementary < State Expenditure 7,047,360 15,015,337 -24,225,580
Education \ Municipal Expenditnre 12,835,288 10,534,260 14,266^04 7
Total 19,882,648 26,049,597 38,491,597
( Government High Schools 562,479 741,806 933,134
S ondarv \ Municipal High Schools and Middle-class Schools 1,436,263 2,081,238 2,384,663
Fdnpnt-ïmi < Municipal Commercial Schools 78,355 147,380 209 887
j jjjjuijjjpjj Secondary Girls' Schools 254.862 293,078 338,391
[ Cost of Inspection and Examination 127,657 153,099 227,418
Total 2,459,616 3,416,596 4,093,493
/ Technical and Craft Schools, Professional and I Drawing Schools, Indnstrial Girls Schools, etc.:
Professional ) State Expenditnre 682,638 607,322 1,427,339
Education 1 Provincial Expenditnre 83,347 178,151 360,773
I Municipal Expenditnre 373,311 565,141 1,369,617
I State Grants to Naval Schools 38,550 44,735 64,035
v State Expenditnre for Agricultural Schools . . . 375,176 503,885 827,160
Total 1,553,022 1,899,234 4,048,924
"Gymnasium"* State Expenditnre 236,682 267,755 411,565
Education \ Municipal Expenditnre 599,406 625,483 717,368
Total 836,088 893,238 1,128,933