3 j AU3
R 66 j
A GENERAL VIEW OF THE NETHERLANDS
NUMBER XVI. SCIENCE



THE SERIES OP PAMPHLETS GIVING TOGETHER A GENERAL VIEW OF THE NETHERLANDS HAS BEEN PÜBLISHED FOR THE P. P. I. E. 1915 UNDER DIRECTION OF THE COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT OF THE NETHERLANDS MINISTRY OF AGRICÜLTURE INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE AT THE HAGUE
THIS SERIES CONSISTS OF THE FOLLOWING NUMBERS:
l AGBICt' lture AND cattle
breeddjg. n. nurseries. Hl-Vil. industries. - p. doyer. me
chanical engineer. Vin. trade. - prof. dr. h. blink.
ix. fishkries. - dr. p. g. van
tienhoven.
x. currency and banking. -
paul sabel.
xi. holland on the seas. -
j. h. cohen stuart. xh. ports and waterways. v. j. p. de blocq van kuffeler. ctvil engineer.
xiii. what to 8ee in the netherlands from an engineer's point of view. - r. p. j tutein nolthe-
nius. civil engineer.
engineers and contractor8. - r. p. j. tutein nolthenius. civil engineer.
education. - j. c. ligtvoet.
science.
1 UNIVERSITIES. - DR. P. C. MOL-
HÜYSEN.
2 THEOLOGICAL INSTRÜCTION. -
PROP. DR. L. KNAPPERT.
3 A REVIEW OF THE LAW. - DB. J.
VAN KÜYK.
4 MEDICAL scd3nce. - PROF. DR.
E. C. VAN LEERSUM. 6 FACULTY opmathematic8and NATUBAI, SCIENCE. - DR. J. A. VOLLGRAFF.
XIV.
XV. XVI.
ö MATHEMATICS. - PROF. DB. J. CARDINAAL.
7 phy8ics - DB. J. A. VOLLGRAFF.
8 a8tbonomy. - PROF. DB. W. DE
BITTER.
9 MINERALOGY, GEOLOGY AND
BELATED BRANCHES OF SCIENCE. - PRO», j. VAN BAREN.
10 BOTANY. - DB. TH. VALETON.
11 ZOOLOGY. - DR. A. SCHIERBEEK.
12 chemi8tby.- DR W. P. JORISSEN.
13 CLASSICAL LITERATURE. - DR. P.
C. MOLHUYSEN.
14 OBIENTAL LITERATUBE. - C. VAN
ABENDONK.
15 nethebland8 LITERATUBE. •
DB. H. J. A. RUYS
16 HISTOBY.-PROF.DB. P.J. BLOK. XVII. MENTAL, RELIGIOUS AND
SOCIAL FORCES. - PROF. DR. H. BAVINCK. XVIIL LITERATURE. - JOH. DE MEESTER.
XIX. MÜSIC. - S. VAN MILLIGEN.
XX. FINE ARTS. - C. VETH.
XXI. ARCHIT KCTURE. - A. W.
WEISSMAN. ARCHITECT.
XXII. PUBLIC HEALTH. - DR. M. W.
PIJNAPPEL.
XXIII. SPORT. - JONKHEER JAN
FEITH.
XXIV. THE WOMAN's MOVEMENT. -
DR. MIA boi8sevain.
XXV. THE PEACE MOVEMENT. -
JONKHEER DR. B. DE JONG VAN BEEK EN DONK.



SCIENCE IN THE NETHERLANDS.
INDEX TO ARTICLES.
titlë. author.
Universities P. G. Molhuysen.
Theological Instruction L. Knappert.
A Review of the Law J. van Kuyk.
Medical Science E. C. van Leersüm.
Faculty of Mathematics and Na-
tural Science J. A. Vollgkaff.
Mathematics J. Cardinaal.
Physics J. A. Vollgraff.
Astronomy W. de Sitter.
Mineralogy, Geology and Related
Branches of Science J. van Baren.
Botany Th. Valeton.
Zoology A, Schierbeek.
Chemistry W. P. Jorissen.
Classical Literature P. C. Molhuysen.
Oriental Literature C. van Arendonk.
Netherlands Literature H. J. A. Ruys.
History P. J. Blok.



State TJniversity at Leyden.



UNIVERSITIESIN THE NETHERLANDS
by P. C. MOLHUYSEN.
introduction.
fPHE aim of this booklet is to give a short account of the I study of the sciences in The Netherlands, and to indicate the place which this country now occupies in the scientific world Albeit the times are long past when The Netherlands was the centre whither canie scholars and students from all parts of Europe to increase their store of knowledge, it does not content itself with an honourable past but endeavours to ensure for itself a good place in the peaceful rivalry of the nations and to show that a small land can in many respects be truly gfeat.
In the following pages will be found, in the first place, a brief review of the nature of Higher Education in The Netherlands, of the gymnasiums and universities, the requirements which are made and the powers which are granted. Then follows a short review of the leading scientific societies, and of the aids to Higher Education and related branches. We then discuss, in order of the five faculties, the development of the different sciences which are taught in the High Schools, and the position of the study of these sciences at the present time, in so far as the scope of this booklet permits.
STATE Uni versity Education in the Northern Netherlands dates from the year 1575. It is true that in the latter part of the fifteenth century students of the Northern Netherlands transplanted Humanism from ltaly to their native soil and here and there we see arise centres of a higher civilisation, as in the Cistercian abbey of Aduard, in Groningen, with which the names of Wessel Gansfort and Rudolf



Agricola are closely connected; and under the infraence of the Brothers of Common Life the schools of Zwolle and Deventer became of greaterimportance, especially the latter, where Alexander Hegius taught and where well-known Humanists, such as Murmellius, Geldenhauer, Willem Hermansz of Gouda and our illustrious Erasmus of Rotterdam had their first education; yet these schools cannot be called institutions for University education. Those wishing to receive a higher education or to take a degree, were always obliged to go to a foreign university: Bologna and Padua, Paris and Orleans, Marburg, Heidelberg, Cologne and Rostock, to mention but a few of the most frequented, counted among their students a great many from the Northern Netherlands. Those not wanting to go so far from home, went to the universities in the Southern Netherlands, to Douai and Louvain, until the Reformation closed these Universities to the greater part of the Northern students.
In 1568 The Netherlands rose against Spanish rule and began the fierce struggle for political and religious rights and liberties against the most powerful kingdom of Europe, a struggle which, soon confined to the Northern Netherlands, only after eighty years led to the recognition of the Republic of the United Netherlands. In the beginning the rebellion had but little success: the leaders, as far as they had not been able to escape, died on the scaffold or in prison; the apostate cities were one after the other reduced under the King's authority; armies, advancing for the reliëf of some town, were scattered or discharged for want of money. But in 1572 things took another turn; the "Beggars" captured Brielle (l8t of April, 1572); the Prince of Orange, Williamthe Silent, the great leader of the rebellion, first compelled to flee to Germany, returned to The Netherlands; Alkmaar (in North Holland) defended itself so bravely, that the Spaniards had to raise the siege (1573), and Leyden, which had been besieged for months and was almost starved, was relieved, after the Prince had had the dikes pierced. The sea flowed into the country, inundated all the country around Leyden and forced the enemy to raise the siege (3rd of October, 1574).
According to tradition the university was established at
4



Leyden as reward for her heroic conduct. In this form the legend is certainly inaccurate; there is a connection between the two events, but not one of cause and effect. After the universities of the Southern Netherlands were closed to the Protestants of the North, the want made itself feit of an institution for the education of thenecessarycivil servantsand clergymen, and a Protestant university and training-college for theologians especially would become a "streng bulwark", as the Prince calls it, in the struggle for freedom of faith. For, though it was not openly said at the erection of Leyden University, the Prince as well as his private councillors afterwards admitted more than once that the principal aim in founding this university was: theology. A short time after the reliëf of Leyden, in 1575, peace negotiations were opened but led to no result. If after the conclusion of peace a university was to be acknowledged eventually, it was essential that it should exist before those negotiations commenced or at least before they were at all in an advanced state. Hence its hurried erection, in a time when thegeneral condition of the country and especially the financial situation, were by no means such as to attempt an enterprise of this description with any chance of success. That it nevertheless succeeded, and the universityattainedsuchprosperity in so short a time in spite of all difnculties, is especially due to the Prince and his eminent supporter, the hero of the siege, Janus Dousa. Their firm confidence in the righteousness of their cause enabled them to consider no difnculty and no sacrifice too great to achieve their purpose.
The charter (of 6lh Jan. 1575) by which the King — for the document was issued in the name of the King by the Prince of Orange, as Stadtholder of the King in Holland and Zealand — commanded the establishment of a university at Leyden, forbade the erection of any other university in those two provinces. But this did not apply to the other provinces in the Northern Netherlands, and successively we see arise a university in each of them: in 1585 at Franeker for Friesland; 1614 at Groningen for the province of that name; 1636 at Utrecht for the province of Utrecht; 1648 at Harderwijk for Gelderland; whilst Overijssel had an
5



State University at Utrecht.



State University at Groningen.



Athenaeum in Deventer, like the one Amsterdam erected in 1631, but without jus promovendi.
As civitates in civitate the universities had an independent existence with great privileges, exemption from taxes and the right to administer justice.
The revolution in the end of the eighteenth century tèrminated those privileges; when the kingdom of the Netherlands wasannexed by the French Empire (1810) only tbe University of Leyden was left, as part of the Université Impériale at Paris; Franeker and Harderwijk were abolished; and the others were reduced to "écoles secondaires". But after the restoration in 1813 they revived once more and the so-called Organic Statute of 1815 incorporated the Universities of Leyden, Groningen, Utrecht, Harderwijk and Franeker. The two last-mentioned however died a natural death in the course of the nineteenth century.
University education in this country is regulated by Act of 28,h April, 1876, subsequently amended by that of 22»d May, 1905.
The principal modifications made by the 1905 Act were the promotion of the Polytechnic School at Delft to a university (rendering possible graduation in engineering), the extension of effectus civilis to degrees conferred by private universities, and the institution of extraordinary professorates. At present we have in The Netherlands only one private university, the "Free University" at Amsterdam, on a Calvinistic basis. Up to now it has four faculties, for Theology, Law, Medicine and Philology.
The three State Universities at Leyden, Utrecht and Groningen and the Municipal University at Amsterdam have equal rights since the Act of 1876 and are organised and governed in the same way, though at Amsterdam there are some deviating rules in a few details, concerning salaries of professors and college fees, and here the appointments are not made by the Queen or the Minister of the Interior, but by the Municipality. These differences we may pass over here, and in speaking of universities we have the four mentioned above in view.
The University is governed by a body of five Curators.
8



Municipal University at Amsterdam.



Free University at
Amsterdam.



They are the intermediaries between Government and University; the annual budget for the whole passes through their hands; and they submit naines for the appointment of professors to the Queen, of other officials to the Minister of the Interior and see that the law is complied with.
The instruction is given by: (a) Ordinary Professors; (b) Extraordinary Professors; (c) Lecturers; and (d) Private Tutors. The three first-mentioned categories are appointed by the Queen, to whom their names are submitted by the Curators, who are again advised by the faculty concerned. Ord inary Professors begin 011 a salary of $ 1,600, which after 5 years is raised to % 2,000 and again after 5 years to $ 2,400. They are not allowed to hold another post without royal permission, but may exercise consultative practice; Medical Professors consider this to apply also to the performing of operations. Ordinary Professors retire at the age of seventy. The salaries of Extraordinary Professors and Lecturers vary according to circumstances. Why a Lecturer is appointed in one case and an Extraordinary Professor in another, is not always clear. Private Tutors are unpaid. They must obtain permission from the Minister of the Interior to teach some branch of science. As distinguished from the three preceding categories who need no qualifications, these Private Tutors must have the degree of doctor.
The Ordinary Professors together form the Senate of the University. One of them is appointed by the Queen "Rector Magnificus" for the period of one year. At the three State Universities this appointment goes by seniority, and each professor is Secretary of the Senate during the year preceding his term of office.
The academie year begins on the third Monday of the month of September. The retiring Rector Magnificus then delivers an oration in which he discusses the fata of the University during the past year. The breaking up (officially on the second Saturday in July) is not accompanied by any ceremony. The usual way of closing in the United States of America, viz. "Commencement", is unknown in the Netherlands Universities. The midsninrner holidays are shorter
11



than those at the Universities, colleges and seminaries in the United States.
A committee of 4 Professors, called "Assessors", assist the Rector in the government of the University. They are generally selected from the retired Rectors, one for each faculty. The Rector has to maintain discipline amongthe students. In case of serious difficulties the Senate officiates as Court of Justice, with power of expulsion from the University.
The Netherlands Universities have 5 Faculties: of Theology, Law, Medicine, Mathematics and Natural Science, (here henceforth called the Faculty of Natural Philosophy) and Literature and Philosophy (Faculty of Arts).
Everyone enrolled by the Rector, is allowed to attend all lectures in all Faculties, upon payment of $ 80 (per academical year). At the State Universities this college fee need not be paid more than 4 times; at Amsterdam they pay half the amount after the fourth year. Students of Divinity pay $ 40 4 times at the State Universities. Curators may allow anyone to attend no more than two courses of lectures on payment of $ 12.
In order to sit for an examination (for which the fee is $ 20) one must hold the certificate for having passed the final examination of a "Gymnasium" (Grammar school). Our Gymnasia have a 6 years' course; at these schools instruction is given in: Latin, Greek, Netherlands, French, German, English, History, Geography, Mathematics, Physics, Analytic Chemistry, Natural History and Hebrew (this last only for future Divinity students and in the two highest classes). After passing through the fourth class the pupils are divided into: (a) future students of Law, Divinity and Arts; (b) future students of Medicine and of Natural Science. The former receive more lessons in Latin and Greek, the latter in Mathematics and Science. Foreigners are admitted to the academical examinations, if they are in possession of one of the certificates mentioned by royal decree for having passed an examination. This final examination of a "Gymnasium" corresponds with the degree of "Bachelor of Arts", conferred by the following universities in the United States:
12



Library of the Leyden State University



The Univ. of California, Berkeley (Ca.); Catholic Univ. of America, Washington (D.C.); The Univ. of Chicago, Chicago (111.); Clark Univ., Worcester (Mass.); Columbia Univ., New York City (N.Y.); Cornell Univ., Ithaca (N.Y.); Harvard Univ., Cambridge (Mass.); The Johns Hopkins Univ., Baltimore (Ma.); The LeiandStanford jun. Univ.,PaloAlto(Ca.); University of Michigan, Ann Arbor (Mich.); Univ. of Pennsylvania, Pbiladelphia (Penns.); PrincetonUniv., Princeton (N.J.); Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison (Wisc); and Yale Univ., New Haven (Conn:).
To a certain extent the American "College" miglit be called a combination of our Gymnasium and our High School. As a rule the student can here follow three courses of study: (1). The classical course, entitling him to the degree of "Bachelor of Arts"; (2). the Latin-scientific course, entitling him to the degree of "Bachelor of Literature"; and (3). the course in the practical subjects of Natüral Philosophy, entitling him to the degree of "Bachelor of Sciences". He then goes either into business or a profession, or, as for instance future clergymen, to a Seminary; or he enters a university to qnalify himself furtlier for his profession.
In the fivc Faculties mentioned above there are the following doctorates:
In the Faculty of Theology, that in Divinity;
In the Faculty of Law, those in Civil Law, in Political Science, and in Modern Roman-Netherlands Law;
In the Medical Faculty, the doctorates in Medicine, in Surgery and in Obstetrics;
In the Faculty of Natural Philosophy, those in Mathematics and Astronomy, in Mathematics and Physics, in Analytic Chemistry, in Geology and Mineralogy, in Botany and Zoology and in Pharmaceutics;
In the Literary Faculty: in Classical Literature, in Semitic Literature, in Netherlands Literature, in the Languages and Literature of the East Indian Archipelago and in Philosophy.
There is at present no separate doctorale in History, which subject forms part of the study for the doctorate in Netherlands Literature.
14



In order to take his degree the student has to pass two examinations: the Intermediate and the Final examination.
Besides these, theological and medical students must pass a preliminary (propaedeutic) examination, the former in Hebrew and Israelitic Antiquities, thelatterin Physics, Analytic Chemistry, Botany and Zoology.
The Intermediate ("Candidaats") examination is aviva voce one, and according to the Faculty lastsfrom 1 to 3*/2 hours; in the Theological Faculty, however, the examination is divided into two parts, with a maximum interval of one year.
The Final ("Doctoraal") examination, consisting of two parts, which take place within a short time of each other, is also a viva voce one, but between the two parts some subject is given to the candidates to be treated in writing, except to those in the Faculty of Law; this essay is discussed in the second part of the examination. After passing these examinations the future graduate writes a dissertation on a subject chosen by himself after consultation with one of the Professors, the "promotor", to which at least 12 Theses must be added. In the Faculty of Law it is sufficiënt to write 24 Theses, and for doctors who desire an additional doctorate in their own Faculty that number is likewise sufficiënt, of course after having passed the examinations required for the new doctorate. When Dissertation and Theses have been approved by the promotor, they are printed and sent to the Professors and to all those whoin the candidate wishes to have them. After this the defence takes place, either in private, i. e. in the presence of the Faculty, or in public, i. e. in the presence of the Senate: criticism is permitted to those who have obtained the Rector's permission. Then the "defendens" is graduated. The graduation takes place without much ceremony. Public graduations are an exception at the Government Universities; whereas they are the rule at Amsterdam. Formerly there was also the graduation "more majorum" or "in cap", but on account of the great expense this has entirely gone out of practice.
Dissertation and Theses are written in Netherlands, except for the degree in Classical Literature, in which case
16



Royal Academy of Scieuce ("Trippenhuis") at
Amsterdam.



they are in Latin. Another language may be chosen however, by permission of the Faculty.
All students do not conclude their studies with a degreet as this is not always necessary for a profession. For law students who choose a legal career or want to be admitted to the Bar, the title of Doctor of Law is required. In the same way only one who has his degree in Classical Literature can be appointed as Rector or Sub-Rector of a Gymnasium. On the other hand, the Intermediate examination in the Literary and Philosophical Faculties gives the same qualificationsfor teaching as the degree of Doctor, and the Final examination in Civil Law and Political Science also gives the right to teach in High Schools.
In order to practise in medicine, those who have passed the final examination or have obtained their degree, must pass two practical medical examinationsbeforeaGovernment commission, usually consisting'of Professors. In reality therefore this examination corresponds to a University examination before the Professors of the Medical Faculty, although the members of the commission need not necessarily be Professors.
Those who, instead of a Gymnasium, have attended a High School (where no classical languages are taught) with a five years' course, may also be qualified to exercise medical practice. They have to pass similar examinations (though bearing different names) to those who come from a Gymnasium, but they cannot take a degree. As in a High School more Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry are taught than in a Gymnasium, those who intend to study medicine often go to such a school and pass a supplementary examination in Latin and Greek, in order to be able to get a degree.
In contrast to the custom in the United States, an honorary degree is very seldom conferred.
Many theological students conclude their studies with the Intermediate examination and then prepare for the examinations of the Church they have chosen. The Netherlands Reformed Church, the largest denomination in the country, has two Professors in each of the three Government Universities, who are appointed by the Church, but paid by
17



the State. The smaller denominations, the Mennonites and Lutherans, have a Seminary of their own at Amsterdam, and the Remonstrants have one at Leyden, where the future clergymen are prepared for the Church. After their Intermediate examination at the University they first pass an ecclesiastical preparatory examination before their (clerical) professors, and after that a " propon en ts" (candidate for the pulpit) examination before a clerical commission.
Here we may again notice some difference compared with the American training. In the United States prospective clergymen, to whatever Church they may belong, are all prepared for their profession in "Seminaries". The Netherlands Reformed Church in the United States has two such Seminaries: one at New Brunswick (N. J.) in the East, and another, "The Western Theological Seminary", at Holland (Mich.) in the.Western part of the country.
The best-known of such institutions connected with the Presbyterian Church are: Princeton Seminary and the Mc. Cornick Seminary. The regular course of study generally lasts three years, during or after which an extra-curriculum course, leading to the degree of" Master of Arts" or "Bachelor of Divinity", can be followed. In order to be admitted as a clergyman in a Congregation the candidate has to sit for an examination before a clerical Commission.
The Netherlands student never attends more than one university; the German system of more than one is entirely. unknown, which has the great drawback that the study often degenerates into a reading for the examinations. The coaching system is closely connected with this. This system means that before a student goes up for an examination he receives a number of private lessons from an older student or one who has his degree in thatbranch of learning, in order to prepare him for the particular questions that are likely to be asked at the examination. In the Faculty of Law it is almost an exception for an undergraduate to sit for an examination without having been coached. It stands to reason that this is not condttcive to independent study. There are no seminaries on a German basis in The Netherlands. The students who are reading for their Intermediate
18



Building of the Holland Science Society at Haarlem.



examination all attend the same lectures together; and so do those going up for their final.
In smaller Faculties some Professors hold a "privatissimum". for afew students in a part of their branch of study that is not required for the examinations, or they make the advanced students write treatises on certain subjects, which essays are afterwards discussed with them. Besides lectures, the medical and natural philosophy students attend practical classes. We may say that on the whole our laboratories are very well appointed, though for a small country it always remains difficult to maintain four universities in full equipment for their teaching.
It has therefore been more than once urged that we should abolish at least one of the universities. But provincialism, that in the seventeenth century thoughtitnecessary for each province to have a university, still flourishes, and a number of universities with incomplete equipment is preferred to one or two fully equipped in every respect.
Beyond "hospitia" for divinity students, which were abolished in the end of the eighteenth century, the Netherlands universities have never had "colleges". The students do not live in the buildings belonging to the University itself, as is the custom in America, but in rooms in the town. A board bearing the words "Cubicula locanda" is hung up outside the house where such rooms are to be let.
In this way living becomes more expensive than it is in America. The students also have more liberty with regard to their studies; they are free to attend the lectures or not, as they please, and they may go up for the examinations when they think they are ready. Although as a rule the students are on friendly terms with their professors, they are much less intimate with them than is the case in America.
Every university has its " Corporation" (or "union") to which about 25 years ago all students belonged; but economie circumstances, real or pretended fear of the sc-called "greening'' (a 3 weeks' novitiate, during which time the young undergraduates are initiated into their new life by their elder colleagues in a manner not always exactly pedagogie, but which wrongly frightens many soft-hearted
20



Teyler's Museum at Haarlem.



mothers) have reduced the number of those that join this Corporation to half the total number of undergraduates. They can be members of athletic and debating clubs and of numerous other societies intended to promote intercourse amongst the students, especially the clubhouse, with its large conversation, dining and billiard-rooms.
Formerly this corporation officially represented the students, but a gradual return to the state of things that gave rise to it, that of representation of each Faculty separately, may now be observed.
In September, 1914, the number of Ordinary and Extraordinary Professors, Lecturers and Private Tutors, divided according to the Faculties, was as follows:
Ord. Extra- Lee- Private
Prof. ord. Prof turers. Tutors.
- j
LEYDEN.
Fac of Theology 8 — —
Fac. of La w 11 — 1 2
Fac. of Medlciue 10 3 3 Ö
Fac of Nat. Philosophy .... 12 2 3 6
Fac. of Literature 17 4 7 6
UTRECHT.
Fac. of Theology 7 1
Fac. of Law 7 1 — —
Ifac. of Medicine 11 — 7 4
Fac. of Nat. Philosophy ... 13 4 3 6
Fac. of Literature 10 5 1 6
GRONINGEN.
Fac. of Theology 6 —
Fac. of Law . 6 1
Fac of Medicine 9 2 1 5
Fac. of Nat. Philosophy . .10 — 1 S
Fac. of Literature 10 — 3 3
22



Ord. Extra Lec- Private
Prof. ord. Prof. turers. Tutors.
AMSTERDAM (Mun. Univ ).
Pac of Theology 7 1
Fac. of Law ... . . 7 1 2
Fac. of Medicine 11 4 1 19
Fac. of Nat. Philosophy . ... 11 7 1 5
Fac. of Literature 12 1 2 5
AMSTERDAM (Free Univ.).
Fac. of Theology .... . 5 1
Fac . of Law 3 — — —
Fac. of Medicine 1 <— 1 —
Fac. of Literature 8 1 — ■ —
The number of students during the 1912—1913 course was:
1,211 (169 of whom were women and- 240 enrolled for the first time) at Leyden
1,099 (261 of whom were women and 221 enrolled for the first time) at Utrecht.
585 ( — of whom were women and — enrolled for the first time) at Groningen.
1,225 (226 of whom were women and 212 enrolled for the first time) at Amsterdam (Municipal Univ.). 172 ( — of whom were women and 32 enrolled for the first time) at Amsterdam (Free Univ.).
Divided according to the Faculties:
23
1.1. i . j Math.and , L
Theol. Law. Med. Nat. Sc.
Leyden 80 479 357 161 134
Utrecht 121 116 543 173 146 .
Groningen 34 66 227 69 189
Amsterdam (Mnn. ün.). 26 185 621 188 205
Amsterdam (FreeUn.). 89 53 7 21



Every University possesses the laboratories, botanical gardens and museums required by the instruction there imparted. Amongst the latter must be particularly mentioned the Archaeological, the Zoological and the Ethnogra-phical Museum at Leyden. Amsterdam has the well-known zoological garden called "Natura Artis Magistra", though this is not a university institution. The Leyden Observatory, the oldest in Europe, is famous. Of the University libraries, by far the most important is the Leyden one, witb its splendid collections of Oriental and Classical manuscripts.
Amongst the great Netherlands libraries there is further the Royal Library at The Hague, which principally collects books in the field of letters, history, legal and political sciences and art, with its branch, the Meermanno-Westrheenianum Museum; and at the same place the Library of the Peace Palace, the gift of Carnegie, which solely collects in the realm of International Law and related subjects. Moreover, all the larger towns have their library, half scientific, half popular, with special collections relating to local history; we may mention here those of Leeuwarden — where also is found the Buma library for classical literature —■ Haarlem, Deventer, Middelburg, etc.
The General State Archives are at The Hague, the provincial State Archives in the respèctive provincial capitals, and municipal archives in the principal towns.
Many learned societies arose here in the eighteenth century which devoted themselves to sub-sections of the sciences and of which one or two are stül in existence, such as the Holland Scientific Society (Hollandsche Maatschappij der Wetenschappen) and Teyler's Sociëty (Science and Theology), with fine art collections and a museum of physical sciences, both at Haarlem; the Bataafsche Society for Experimental Philosophy at Rotterdam (Sciences), and the Society of Netherlands Literature at Leyden. The Royal Academy of Science of Amsterdam was established in the middle of the nineteenth century, with two sections, one for mathematical and physical sciences and one for philology, literature, history and philosophy. All these societies have their members spread throughout the country, and also appoint foreign
24



Building of the Archseological Association (the Mint-tower) at Amsterdam.



members. There are also provincial and local societies which devote theraselves principally to provincial history and philology and issue publications in their own sphere.
Special branches of science are studied by the Netherlands Archseological Association, of Amsterdam, the Historical Society of Utrecht, the Society for the Publication of Old Legal Documents (Vereeniging tot uitgave van Oude Rechtsbronnen), etc.
After this general review of Higher Education in this country, we leave the subject in the hands of a number of collaborators, who will describe more in detail the education given in the different faculties.
26



THEOLOGICAL INSTRUCTLON IN THE NETHERLANDS by l. knappert.
rpHEOLOGICAL instructic-n in the Netherlands has 1 always included the study of the "three Languages", and the students examined by the Reformed Church have been required to possess testimonials for having attended lectures in those languages. There is no need to repeat what the reader can find elsewhere about the study of Latin and Greek in this country; we will only mention what is closely connected with theological science, Hebrew and Oriental languages in general. As a rule the teaching of Setnitic languages at the Netherlands universities has been closely connected with that of theology. The theological faculties needed teachers of the litterae sacrae, and so the professors of Hebrew and Hebrew Antiquities generally belonged to that faculty. The Leyden university forrns the only exception to this rule: a chair for "Oriental" languages hasexisted here almost without interruption since its foundation; in consequence its theologians studied linguistics lessthan elsewhere. The need of instruction in Hebrew, the outcome of the instruction in theology, had a favourable influence on the study of this tongue and cognate languages. Without the existence of the theological faculty, the large Netherlands school of Orientalists would certainly never have attained its acknowledged development. On the other hand the study of the East was of great importance for Netherlands theology : it counteracted the arbitrariness of the dogmatists and the rigidity of the traditional criticism by its knewledge of the Semitic world, and thus became the precursor of modern exegesis e mente auctoris We may here mention the names of Coccejüs at Franeker (1636—1650) and at Leyden (1650—1669) and Jac Altino at Groningen (1643-1679). Another branch of learning also owes a great deal to
27



our Oriental school, the history of religions. The history of religions in general (taught in the theological faculties since 1876) owes a great deal to Assyriology and Egyptology. Professor O P. Tiele (1830—1902), the first teacher of these branches at the Leyden University, entered upon his office on the 10lh of October, 1877, with an oration on: "De vrucht der Assyriologie voor de vergelijkende geschiedenis der godsdiensten"*;. The study of Israel's laDguage and antiquities led to that of the later Judaism [in the 17"' century C. 1'Empereüb at Harderwyk (1619—1627) and at Leyden (1627— 1647); in the 18'1' W. Surenhusius at Amsterdam (1704— 1729)]. At the same time the study of Arabic led to the knowledge of Islam. Th. Erpeniüs at Leyden (1613—1624) and Jac. Golius, also at Leyden (1625—1668), had facilitated the approach to Arabic, the former by his grammar, the latterby his dictionary. Through his "De religione mohammedica" the eminent Adr. Reland at Utrecht (1701—1718) became the precursor of the newer Netherlands islamists, R. Dozy, Th. Houtsma, O Snouck Hurgronje, and Th. W. Juijnboll. From Levinus Warner (f 166S) the Leyden University received a bequest of Oriental manuscripts (legatum Warnerianura). Not only the seiejice of theology, but also comparative philology was studied by our orientalists as far back as the 18lh century. The Groningen professor N. G. Schroeder (1748—1798) wrote a work in which the Hebrew roots were compared with those of other Semitic dialects. The family of Schültens—Albertüs at Franeker (1713— 1729) and at Leyden (1729—1749), Joh. Jacobus at Leyden (1749 -1778), and Henr. Albertus at Amsterdam (17741779) and at Leyden (1779—1793) especially profited by comparative philology with regard to the Hebrew lexicon. Hebrew studied with famous results by such a man as Sixtinüs Amama at Franeker, in the beginning of the 17lh century, enjoyed such one-sided preference among many theologians tbat C. Schotanus at Franeker urged a more profound study of Greek as a counterpoise ("Manuale Novi Testamenti" after Pasor, 1664).
*) "The Effect of Assyriology on the Study of the Comparative History of Relisrions."
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Library of Leyden University, 17^ century.



Two translations of the Üld Testament from Hebrew into Netherlands appeared in the 17th and 19lh centuries respectively: the authorized translation or "Staten-vertaling" (for the Old Testament Booerman, Baudartius, Bucer, etc.) 1626--1637, and the Leyden translation (Hooykaas, Kosters, Kuenen and Oort 1885 — 1901).
The first to study the languages of the Netherlands East Indies were the semitic scholars Taco Roorda at Amsterdam (1828—1841) and P. J. Veth at Franeker (1841-1843), at Amsterdam (1843 -1864), and at Leyden (1864 - 1884).
Among theological subjectsthe interpretation of theBible took a foremost place. Nümerous .scholars made their mark by their studies of the Books of the Old and New Testaments in the original tongue. Calvin himself drew attention to the possibility of an historical-grammatical interpretation of the Scriptures, but a large majority of the herraeneutists were tied by their dogmatism and by the exegetic method applied to the New Testament, which requiredanallegorical and typological criticism in many places of the Old Testament. The 19 h century brought for the first time a different conception of the authority of the Bible and of the relation between Old and New Testaments; and exegesis could move more freely when belief in the literal inspiration of the Scriptures gave way to a more spiritual and historical appreciation. Hügo.Grotius (1583—1645) ("Opera omnia theologioa", Amsterdam, 1679), worked hard for the true understanding of the Scriptures. He opposed the above-mentioned notion, that the exegetical methods applied to the New should be blindly followed for the interpretation of the Old Testament. Cocckjus, whom we have already mentioned, opened new ways for exegesis, when he asserted that undoubtedly the true meaning of a word or sentence can only be ascertained by inquiring into the spirit and intention of the author, in accordance with the analogy of the Scriptures, and after mature consideration of what is added, precedes
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and foliows ("Praef. Comm. ad Rom.", "Oratio de philologia sacra"). Yet his criticism too is influenced by his federal theology. Campeqiüs Vitringa of Franeker(1680—1722)restored and raaintained the historical import of the Scriptures with great accuracy, although even he could not entirely free himself from Cocceian typology ('De Synagoga vetere", 1696; Observationum sacrarum libri VII, 1700—1727). At Leyden Herman Witsius (f 1708) and Joh. a Marck (f 1731) had come to the fore. Joh. Jac. Wettstein of Amsterdam (f 1754) gave in his Novum Testamentum, after the textus receptus with the variae lectiones and commentary, the result of a whole life's study devoted to the criticism of the New Testament. The 19,h century brought the triumph of the historical-critical method, applied to the Old Testament by Abraham Kuenen ("Historisch-kritisch onderzoek naar het ontstaan en de verzameling van de boeken des Ouden Verbonds", 1861—1865. 2°. ed. 1885-1889), andto the New Testament by Scholten and his school, from which in its turn arose the radical school of W. C. van Manen and A. D. Loman. At Utrecht J. I. Doedes and afterwards J. M. F. Baljon walked in more conservative ways.
In the field of the history of Israelitish literature Benedictüs Spinoza (1632—1677) undertook an investigation of its origin in his "Tractatus theologico-politicus" (1670); his wish was only to avail himself of the -natural light of reason that is also of God", and he says amongst other things that the word of God to the prophets reveals the divine will that they should obey God with a puremindbypractisingjustice. Spinoza also clearly foresaw the more modern treatment of the Pentateuch. His views found no adherence. Kuenen was the first to give an undogmatic history of the literature of the Old Testament, in which he folio wed originally the order of the canon and placed the Law before the Prophets. Afterwards he changed this point of view ("De Godsdienst van Israël", 1869/1870. H. K. O.2), partly under the influence of K. H. Grap, and placed the Prophets before the Law. Some modern critics incline to a view which is more in accordance with Kuenen's first standpoint.
Many scholars applied themselves to Ancient Christian
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literature, their work being more and more influenced by the increasing knowledge of the East.
The history of Christianity, commonly called Church History, was at first not studied as an independent subject in the Universities of the Northern Netherlands. Early historians treated it together with political history (Bok, Van Meteren, and Hooet). The "Systema theologicum" by the Franeker professor Henr. Nerdenus (1611) is of importance, not for its dogmatic contents, but because of the contributions it contains to the history of the introduction of the Reformation in this country. The same may be said of the book of Mart. Schoock of Groningen: "Liber de bonis vulgo ecclesiasticis dictis" (1651), a polemical work about tbe ecclesiastical property and canons of Utrecht, which has now great value on account of Sectio tertia caput septimum, that fo'rms a rich source for the history of the Reformation. The Arminian controversy gave rise to Jac. Trigland's "Kerkelijcke geschiedenissen" (Ecclesiastical Histories) of 1650, highly important for our knowledge of the period, though the historian is too often overborne by the dogmatist, andto Joh. Wttenbogaert's "De Kerkelicke Historie", 1646, considered from the Remonstrant point of view. Better than either of these is Geerard Branot's "Historie der Reformatie", 4 vol., 1671 — 1702 (the two last volumés are posthumous), Which deals with events as late as 1623, an entirely new and original work, the true value of which was not appreciated until the present day. The 18'h century may boast of Daniël Gerdes at Groningen (1698—1765). He advocates impartiality and love of ti-uth in the historian (Praefatio to "Introductio in historiam evangelii seculo XVI passim per Euro* pam renovati", 1744—1752. 4 vol.), which principles he also follows in his "Scrinium antiquarium", 1748 -1765, 8 vol., a storehouse of most important documents. His "Specimen Italiae reformatae", 1765, was published posthumously. At Franeker there flourished Herman Venema (1697—1787), whose "Institutiones historiae ecclesiasticae V. ac N. T." (7 vol. 1777—1783) is an excellent work on the complete
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history of the Church (beginning with Adam!) up to the establishment of the Reformation in Europe, critically and impartially drawn from original sources: the first effort in pragmatic historical research.
Oratio inauguralis in the Great Auditorium of Leyden University (18'h century).
jona W illem te Water (1740—1822) was succeeded by Herm. Joh. Rooyaards (1794—1855) and Nic. Chr. Kist
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(1793—1859) who at Utrecht and Leyden brought Church History to a high degree of development. The "Archief voor kerkelijke geschiedenis", vol. I 1829 (Archives for Ecclesiastical History) stands before us as a monument of their labour. It still exists, one editor succeeding the other, and gives universal as well as national history of Christianity. But the real f ounder of the ne w school is Willem Moll of Amsterdam (1812—1879), equally excellent in historical research and writing, and especially famous for what he did for the history of our mediaeval church (" Johannes Brugman" 1854; "Kerkgeschiedenis van Nederland vóór de Hervorming", 2 torn. 6 vol. 1864—1871). He was followed by his best pupil, J. G. R. Acquoy of Leyden (1829—1896). "in the latter's inaugural lecture at Leyden (7th of Dec. 1881) he argues that the subject should rather be called " History of Christianity" than "Church History",thisbeingmorecomprehensive and including movements outside the Church. His chief work is "Het klooster te Windesheim en zijn invloed" (3 vol. 1875—1880), while he explained his method in his "Handleiding tot de kerkgeschiedvorsching en kerkgeschiedschrijving", 1894, 2nd ed. by F. Pijper, 1910. The Amsterdam professor J. G. de Hoop Scheffer (1819 —1893) gave a "Geschiedenis der kerkhervorming in Nederland van haar ontstaan tot 1531" (History of the Reformation in The Netherlands from its Origin till 1531), 2 vol. 1873. At the same time he dealt in several articles with the history of his own denomination, that of the Mennonites, which work was continued by his successor S. Cramer (1842—1913). Work of the same kind was performed for the history of the Remonstrants by Joan Tideman and the Amsterdam professor H. C. Rogge (1831—1905) and by T. J. Domela Nieuwenhuis and Joh. Pont for that of the Lutherans. A "History of the Netherlands Reformed Church" was given by Ypey and Dermout in 4 vol. (1819—1827) — the first of its kind, excellent in many respects, and valuable for the extensive materialfrom original-sources; B. Glasiüs ("Godgeleerd Nederland") in 3 vol. 1842—1844; G. J. Vos, on orthodox lines ("Geschiedenis der Vaderlandsche kerk") 1881—82; J. Reitsma, professor of the Rèïormed Church at Groningen (1837—1902) ("Gesch.
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van de Hervorming en de Herv. kerk in Nederland") 1893, 2nd ed. 1899 (3rd ed., posthumous and revised, is being published) and finally by the writer of these pages ("Geschiedenis der Ned. Hervormde Kerk") 2 vol. 1911, 1912. The "Bibliotheca Reformatoria neerlandica", by PYPERand Cramer, 10 vol. 1903—1914, is a collection of documents from the days of the Reformation, newly edited with introductions and annotations. At the present moment the professors of history of Christianity as a rule also teach history of Cbristian dogmatics.
The encyclopaedia has been dealt with by Voetius in ■"Excercitia et Bibliotheca studiosi theologiae"; H. van Diest: "De ratione studii theologici"; J. Clarisse: "Encyclopaediae theologicae epitome", lst ed. 1832; and A. Kuyper: "Encyclopaedie der H. Godgeleerdheid", 1894.
At the outset the early Netherlands Reformed Church had no binding Confessional articles; originally she was more biblical than dogmatical, consequently there was no strongly feit want of scientific dogmatics. In the series lectionum at Leyden of 1587 no mention is made of lectures on dogmatics, and the first manual of dogmatics used in this University, the "Synopsis methodi sacrae theologiae", was by Professor Lucas Tbelcatius the elder, who became professor there in 1587.
The growing influence of the Calvinistic element brought more sharply defined doctrine and the need of a scientific treatment of dogma. Moreover, when the Church had been «stablished firmly externally, the old controversies came to the fore within ber walls: God's Absolute Sovereignty and human freedom, election and Man's responsibility, in which doctrines the Calvinistic-Reformed theologians started from the theological point of view and the Remonstrant-Ref ormed theologians from the anthropological. The latter were condemned at the Synod of Dort, and the five canons (proclaimed on May 6th, 1619) form the first dogmatical document of the Reformed Church, supralapsarian, but here and there giving in to inf ralapsarianism, together with the Confession
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or XXXVII Articles and the Heidelberg Catechism the Three Formularies of Unity. These formed the foundation for all subsequent dogmatic University education. This is obvious immediately from the famous "Synopsis purioris theologiae" by the Theological faculty of Leyden (restored after 1618): Polyander, Rïvetüs, Walaeus and ThysIus, 1625 (3"1 ed. 1642, 4th 1652, 5th 1658) which comprisesthe whole of dogmatics in 52 disputations and is a model for thé treatment of ecclesiastical doctrine.
A place of honour has been taken by dogmatics in the universities ever since: there has been hardly any professor who has not devoted a course of lectures to it. We can only give an outline of the subject, however.
Simon Episcopiüs taught in the Remonstrant Seminary at Amsterdam. He drew up the Confession for his Church, which gives an account of ^heir creed, equally excellent in form and contents and with a sharp distinction between necessary and unnecessary doctrines. The same spirit speaks from his "Institutiones theologicae", where the ecclesiastical dogma retires behind scriptural doctrine, a kind of biblical dogmatics, not speculatively philosophical, but "pure practica", with a distinct reserve towards the ïnystery of God's decree. His successors De Courcelles, Poelenburgh, and a Limborch worked in thé same spirit.
At Utrecht there fiourished at that time the great Calvinistic-Reformed dogmatistGisBERTUsVoETius He brought dogmatics to the level of science, as he understood it, which among other things implied that he drew into the pale of dogmatics even questions of a philosophical nature. The Dort system found in him its most powerful defender. This istestified by one of his principal works: "Disputationes theologicae selectae", 5 tom. 1648— 1669, the greater part of which is devoted to theological-dogmatic controversies. His colleagues in the faculty followed in his footsteps, Joh. Hoornbeek (from 1644), with a strong tendency towards polemics, especially in his "Summa controversiarum", 1650, and a preference for historical studies, and AndrEas Essenius in his "Compendium theologiae dogmaticae". In the course of time all those who fought for the received doctrine of the Church,
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were called Voetians. In the second half of the century they found opposed to them the Cocceians, the followers of Coccejüs in his dogmatical conception of federal theology, a "household of covenants". God had entered into a cove nant of works with Adam, into a covenant of grace with Moses, and finally into a new covenant with Christ, as the head of a congregation to be gathered by Him, and in such a way that the Old Testament foreshadowed the gifts of salvation of the New Testament (doctrine of prototypes). Büllinoer had taught this Covenant theory previously in his "Huysboeck", but this was unknown to Coccejüs. Although therefore the idea was not new, the whole system built on it appeared dangerous to the Doctrine of the Church <how different is the place of the Mediator in the "foedus Dei" from that in the "decretum Dei"!). Hence violent attacks were made upon Coccejüs' " Summa doctrinae de foedere et testamento explicata", 1648, by Hoornbeek, among others, for whom there was no difference between scriptural doctrine and dogmatics, divine and eccleciastical authority. But even he did not yet appeal to the Three Formularies. The 18th century asserted their absolute authority for the first time. At Groningen it was Joh. Braun (from 1680) who in his "Doctrina foederum" deduces all theology, natural and revealed, from this one point, God's covenant with man. The 19lh like the 17th century was fertile in regard to the development of dogmatics. After "Aufklarung" and Oldliberalism (a rationalistic supernaturalism) the Groningen school introduced a new period. The "compendium dogmatices et apologetices christianae" of Hofstede de Groot and L. G. Pareau is of 1840 (18452, 18483) and teaches that the awakened life of faith is the starting-point of theology: faith goes before dogma. God reveals Himself tous in the development and training of the human race, and of that universal revelation the Christian revelation f orms part, of which again Jesus Christ, the Divine Man, is the centre. In His Exaltation He governs his Community: a Christocracy. In hamartiology they teach that the good in Man did not die, in spite of the power of sin.
Opposed by the rigorously orthodox theologians, the
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Groningen school in its turn rejected the rising "Modern" theology. C. W. Opzoomek, appointed Professor at Utrecht in 1846, first taught, under the influence of Kraüse, that what pious faith accepted has now been confirmed as truth by philosophy, "reconciling Man to himself". Later ("De weg der Wetenschap" — "The Road of Science" — 1851)empiricism, the passion for reality, became to him the source of knowledge — but only of material things. Faith, however, is based on the religiousfeeling that makes us conscious of God as immediate truth. Though he differed here from Scholten, he was like him determinist, teleologist and antisupranaturalist, and even approached him still more when he deduced by pure reasoning that the results of science will again and again confirm the experience of the religious feeling j. H. Scholten at Leyden ("De leer der hervormde kerk" I 1848, II1850,18512,18553,1862»; "Dogmaticaechristianaeinitia", 1854; "De vrije wil", 1859) found the basis of faith in the testimonium spiritus sancti, in accordance with the testimony of reasón, which can also rise to things divine. It brings certainty and makes us also acquainted with God through empirical investigation of nature, history and man. Scholten is monist, antisüpranaturalist and teaches a rigorous determinism. The work of God in the world is evolutionistic and teleological. He is Absolute Sovereign and also holy. which is not irreconcilable with the existence of sin, this beingonlyan "ensnegativum"anddestined todisappear at the end of time. S. Hoekstra, of Amsterdam ("Het geloof des harten volgens het Evangelie", 1857 ; "De ontwikkeling van de zedelijke idee in de geschiedenis", 1862; "Bronnen en grondslagen van het godsdienstig geloof ", 1864) brings to the fore the anthropological and psychological element in dogmatics. His starting-point is the belief in the truth of our own inward being, that testifies to God. Religion is bom of the need for deliverance from affliction and from sin, which according to Hoekstra is positivo. Against Scholten's determinism, he maintains the individuality of man and a moderate indeterminism. Modern theology was opposed by Doedes and Van Oosterzee, who maintainedbiblical-supranaturalism, and by D. Chantepie de la Saussaye and j. H.
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Gunning, on first principles especially, who placed their ethical-irenic principle opposite to Scholten's intellectualism, ethical not meaning inoral, but spiritual. The foundation of faith is not reason, but purified spiritual life, when Christ Himself lives in the reborn soul. Then only do we comprehend, because we understand with our heart. On this all theology is based, whose further task is to expound the faith of the Community scientifically. Among the Moderns them selves Scholten met with opposition. Some, radically-sceptical, dropped off to the radical side; the group of the ethical Moderns declared belief and knowledge tobe heterogeneous, abjured "deterministicfatalism" and found the basis of theology in moral nature. As an outcome of the "Réveil" (Bilderdijk, da Costa, and Groen van Prinsterer) the antirevolutionary party arose in the field of politics, and in that of religion as Neo-Calvinism, whose dogmatists, Dr. Abr. Kuyper and Dr. H. Bavinck, advocate the doctrine of Calvin, in many ways revised ("Encyclopaedie der H. Godgeleerdheid", 1894; "Gereformeerde Dogmatiek").
Few only among the Netherlands theologians applied themselves to Ethics. In the 17th century it appears under English influence as casuistry in a pietistic and ascetic sense. Thus we find it in the book on the "Casus Conscientiae" (Cases of Conscience) (1623), by Professor Amesius at Franeker, the pupil of William Perkins. As late as the end of that century Leydecker gave lectures on this book at Utrecht. Others, such as Rivetus at Leyden, contented themselves with deriving a system of Christian morals from the Decalogue; whereas others such as Walaeus, also at Leyden, revised the ethics of Aristotle, so as to make them apply to Christianity. In the beginning of the 18lh century Campegius Vitringa at Franeker taught Ethics as "the morals and acts in the State of Christianity according to the doctrine of the gospel". As we see, it did not get beyond a practical treatment of evangelie morality, and those who applied themselves to it were always fewinnumber—mostprobably owing to the fact that morality, the doctrine of virtue, laid one under suspicion of Arminianism.
Joh. Clarisse, who was at Harderwyk from 1804 till
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1815 and afterwards at Leyden, was the first to apply himself to the philosophical study of morality, while his colleague Van Voobst still exclusively taught Ohristian morality. To Pareau, one of the founders of the "Groningen school", morality was, in accordance with the principles of that school, the scientific development of the way in which God through Jesus Christ leads Man to virtue, holiness and love ("Initia institutionis chr. moralis", 1843). The empirical method was also introduced into Ethics with Opzoomer and Pierson, the necessity of anthropologicalinvestigation being likewise taught by them. Kuenen, the Leyden Old Testament scholar, also great as a moralist, following Schleiermacher, though deviating from him here and there, divided his subject-matter (according to the sketch by his pupil GroeNewegen) in this way: anthropological introduction; origin and development of moral life in man and in mankind ; modern conception of moral life; the moral ideal; the doctrine of duty; the doctrine of virtue. The influence of Hoekstra at Amsterdam was also great. He maintained in opposition to Scholten a moderate indeterminism in ethics, and to him individuality, the Ego, is equal to the one who Wills, I Will. Quite recently Professor P. D. Chantepte de la Saussaye of Leyden published a book on "Het Christelijk leven" (The Christian life) (2 vol. 1910,1912).
Practical theology — homiletics, catechetics, liturgics, and poimenics — won its place in theological education also only gradually. At theSynodof Dort, 1618/1619, agravamen of classis Zierikzee was put on the table, which strongly urged instruction in theologia practica. Yet in his "Ecclesiastes" Professor Lucas Trelcatius the younger, of Leyden (1573 1607) had already given a homiletics, the first in this subject, of which we still have a printed edition. At Groningen Jacobi-s Alting (f 1679), the teacher of the famous Balthasar Bekker (who also published his opera omnia)raised an interest in practical theology, especially in religious instruction, which was then very poor. The manuals for students of that time, such as Maresiüs' "Enchiridion" (1645)
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and van Diest's "De ratione studii thee-logici" (1634), resp. of Groningen and Harderwyk, also advocated the importance of practice in preaching, etc, here and there with success, resulting if not in public lectures, yet in private exercise. We know no manual, properly speaking, of practical theology save Hbnr. Ravesteijn's "De Nazireeër Gods", 1740, which superseded the book of the Englishman Bowles, "De pastore evangelico". The influence of the great Coccejüs, first at Franeker, then at Leyden (f 1669) on the instruction of homiletics is less deep than is usually asserted. It is true that he was a zealous defender of exegesis "e mente auctoris" and of biblical preaching, but these principles were practised but very imperfectly. The analytic method of preaching prevajled everywhere, with Scholastic demonstrations and learned explanations. For the sermon was above all things interpretation of the Scriptures. The Leyden professor Ewald Hollebeek (-f 1796) brought areal. improvement by recommending to his pupils the so-called English method of preaching (that of Tillotson, Doddridg e, etc), which is synthetical and attends to the religious wants of the audience. In this manner Hollebeek became the pioneer for the great homilists of the beginning of the 19,h century. During this period excellent books on the art of preaching were published, such as: Clabisse's "Voorlezingen" (1814, 2nd ed. 1839), Des Amorie van der Hoeven's "Joh. Chrysostomus" (1825), Van Hengel's "lnstitutio oratoris sacri" (1829), Steenmeijeb's "Brieven over de welsprekendheid" (1853); but much attention was paid also to instruction in the whole domain of practical theology. This is testified by the lectures of J. Hebinga E. 61. at Utrecht (f 1840) and also by two excellent manuals, the "Practische godgeleerdheid", by Muubling of Groningen (1851 —1857) and the "Practische theologie" by van Oosterzee of Utrecht (2"'1 ed. 1895). Since 1876 the theologia practica has been removed from the list of lectures in the Universities by the State Professors; at present this branch of study, as well as theologia biblica, history of missions and dogmatics is taught in Protestant seminaries instituted by the various Churches.
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The reader of this short and necessarily incomplete sketch who wishes to know more about the subject, should study the foliowing works by C. Sepp : "Het godgeleerd onderwijs in Nederland gedurende de 16de en 17de eeuw", 2 vol. 1873, 1874; "Joh. Stinstra en zijn tijd, eene bijdrage tot de geschiedenis der kerk en school in de 18do eeuw", 2 vol. 1865,1866; "Proeve eener pragmatische geschiedenis der theologie in Nederland van 1787—1858", 1 vol. 3rd ed. 1869; and "Bibliotheek van Nederlandsche Kerkgeschiedschrijvers", 1 vol 1886.
A. C. Duker's "Gisbertus Voetius", 3 vol. 1897—1914, deals especially with the 17th century; whilst for the 19to century up to 1875 there are: K. H. Roessingh's "De moderne theologie in Nederland", 1914, and James Hutton Mackay's "Religious Thought in Holland during the Nineteenth Century", London, 1911.
i2



A REVIEW OF THE LAW OF THE NETHERLANDS by j. van kuyk.
ITPON the whole the political life of a nation falls together Jwïth its judicial development. Thus the division of judicial life may be seen when it is brought in connection with the threefold division in : the time of the Middle Ages, the time of the Republic of the United Netherlands in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and that of the Kingdom of the Netherlands in the nineteenth century. The duration of each of these periods is not distinctly defined, times of transition with struggles and confusion being naturally found between the close of the one and the opening of the other.
We must briefly sketch these three periods, each with its characteristic features and considered in relation toits significance to the whole, in order to give an idea of the law of the Netherlands, viz., the time of the early development and growth of the original Netherlands law; that of the intrusion of foreign, more particularly classical law, with its influence on this original law; and finally the period of the later Netherlands law, born under French auspices. We can easily see the development: Germanic law, influenced by Roman law and again transformed through French law — law, born together with the nation, influenced and transformed beyond recognition, grown to a mixture the origin of whose elements is often as mysterious as the whole is foreign to the sense of justice.
The first period is that of the common law, growing and developing along with the economie and political wants of the people and being applied in cases of justice where at first the whole nation, and later its representatives, officiates as the one who declares the law. This period is to be distinguished from the two others, in which people and law are
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estranged from each other, where law grows to be a law of jurists, andjurisprudence thetask oflawyers. This difference can only be partly explained as a natural consequence of its development while the population was changing its manner of life, and while social relations were becoming more complex andjurisprudence more intensive; but it was certainly for the greater part brought about by conscious action of the monarchs and their officials, proceeding from juridical circles, and by systematic extension of foreign law through science and legal practice.
The first period of which short mention should be made, is the one in which these countries, politically forming part of the Teutonic nations, possessed a law of their own, along the coasts and far into the country, of pure Frisian origin, in the South influenced by Frankish dominion, and in the East adapting itself in many respects to Saxon rule. Then there was a gradual development of the larger political unities under their lords (theDukesof Brabant and Gelderland, the Counts of Holland and Zealand, and the Bishop of Utrecht); and within their territories a development of the manors and, especially since the thirteenth century, the towns. Together with this development, which placed public authority more and more in varioushands, we find a division of justice over a great number of independent and distinctly separate jurisdictions, which in mutual rivalry anxiously tried to maintain their real or presumed independence; and they sueceeded but all too well in this tendency because a strong central authority was wanting. For the centres of commerce and trade, accordingly for the towns, municipal law has grown out of the general national law. The towns having obtained, with the support and assistance of the overlord, a governmentandjurisdiction of their own, collect their laws in codes, not as a systematic whole, but as a collection of independently derived ordinances or "Keuren". The chief thing in the municipal law is the statute-law — the product of legislation — for the town has the power to make ordinances, and by means of this satisfies the desire for new forms of justice that makes itself feit at every moment. By
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its side we must note the law of the rural districts, remarkable because of its being for a far greater part a law based on custom. The sources of that law are mostly records of the prevalent law, such as survived from onegenerationtothe other in the ideas of the people. Each change was but the development and iuiprovement of the old law. Since in the country the simple marnier of life continued much longer, these people were much less in want of acts of legislation than in the towns, where they lived by trade and industry. As towns with a richly developed municipal law we may mention : Dordrecht, Leyden, Haarlem, Utrecht, Zutphen, Kampen and Groningen. Special mention should be made of the little town of Brielle, because its law gave rise to the composition of a monument of jurisprudence, unique in its attempt and execution. It is the "Rechtsboek van den Briel" (Brielle Book of Law), written by the town clerk of Brielle, Jan Matthyssex, in the beginning of the fifteenth century. It gives a clear and concise account of jurisdiction and procedure in a mediaeval town.
Besides rural and municipal law as the general national law, maintained by public authority, we must point to the court, tribute and feudal law, special forms of law for certain relations of dependence, connected with the claims on the land, and supported by the organs of a private dominion. Those relations arose when great land-holders, that is to say. those who had authority in mediaeval-feudal society — nobility and clergy — distributed on a large scale the estates belonging to them among tenants, who were free to use them. Those tenants, it is true, remained freemen, but yet, through the usurpation of power by the great lords, they were in a sense dependent upon their influence, which in the course of time grew to be a dominion In consequence of this they were subjected to the judicature of the lord.
Finally we should remember that the Church, with everything pertaining to her, also lived under a law and clerical jurisdiction of her own.
In this manner law in the Middle Ages offers a variegated image of a division into several jurisdictions. Still the judicial thoughts as a rule show the most obvious signs of
45



affinity, and it is not difficult to discover one fundamental thought from which they are all derived. We may in this sense speak of an indigenous law, in which the original unity in the law and in the idea of justice grew to be more and more diversified, owing to the influence of social relations and special economie interests, coming to the fore in each of those jurisdictions.
The second period begins when the complex of small States and manors of the Middle Ages is growing into the modern State. The power of the lord increased with the expiration of feudalism, and reached its highest point when in the sixteenth century the Burgundo-Austrian princes (Charles the Fifth and Philip the Second) had united all the Netherlands States under their government. While striving for a centralisation in government, they endeavoured to introducé order and unity into the administration of justice by means of reforms and the issue of common national ordinances. Here they were opposed by the towns especially, which having grown rich and powerful, wished to preserve their independence, and it was this desire that in the end prevented their attempts from being successful. Characteristic of this time is the intrusion of Roman law, such as it had developed in the Middle Ages through science and legal practice in Italy. The bad, confused condition of justice at home, of judicature rather than of material law, was conducive to the influence of foreign law, and we may assume that these defects gave a greater push in that direction than the intrinsic merits of the Roman law. The influence of jurists also affected this. This influence dates from the Burgundian time; both in government and in jurisdiction they more and more take the place of the lay courts of justice. As regards jurisdiction, we notice this change first in the higher Courts of Justice; the highest judicial power in the different provinces comes into the hands of courts whose organisation was established in the reign of Charles V, and which in the end only consisted of professional judges versed in the law. In the lower courts also jurisdiction by lawyers comes more and more to the front after the decline of princely power (end of the
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sixteenth century) and during the time of the Republic of the United Netherlands (1581 — 1795).
The law they applied and ad vocated was the Roman law, the only thing they had learned, the only thing that was taught by men of science and was treated in writing. The Netherlands school of lawyers was formed by Romanists; the greatest among them did not look down so much upon the original Netherlands law as the lesser scholars, and in general the pupil went further in one-sided glorification of the foreign law than the master. In consequence of this the old Netherlands law — if not forcibly extinguished — lost its freshness and vital power, and the law grew to be a doctrine of subtleties, from which the people were estranged.
Love and knowledge of the old law of their forefathers still speaks from the works of two Overyssel scholars: Melchior Winhoff and Herman Croeser. The former (deceased about 1580) gave a composition of the "Landrecht" of Overyssel, which has maintained its authority in following centuries, and whose influence on the legislation in his province in the seventeenth century could be clearly discerned. Herman Croeser, probably a pupil of the University of Orleans and deceased in 1574, drew up a scheme for a Municipal law of Kampen, which however never became law. In this work he gave a description of the Civil Procedure and Penal law of his native town which was meant to be a complete codifïcation.
As the greatest of the next Romanist school we mention: NicolaesEverhardi (deceased in 1532\ VigliusvanAytta (deceased in 1577), Hugo de Groot (deceased in 1645), Ulbik Huber (deceased in 1694), Simon van Leeuwen, (deceased in 1682). Johannes Voet (deceased in 1714), Gehard Noodt (deceased in 1725), and Gornelis van Bijnkershoek {deceased in 1743). Everhardi, president of the highest court of justice in the Netherlands and ancestor of a numerous and famous family of jurists, created in his "Topica juris" a method, as highly praised by some as it was disdained by others, which — if it had found imitation — would certainly have become of lasting signifieance. Viglius and Noodt are «xclusively scholars of Roman law, but as such beloug to the
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stars. Of Vigliüs it may be said that he showed the direetion in which the Netherlands school, following the French, should move, that of the study of the sources of the law itself. Though much credit should be given to the Netherlands school for this study, the remark has not unjustly been made that they proceeded more as antiquarians than as jurists. Gerard Noodt, who devoted his life to education and was a professor at Leyden for forty years, was a follower of the school of Cujacius, and his best work is in so-called "elegant" jurisprudence. By his side are others who described the law as they saw it practised around them, though they looked through Roman spectacles. De Groot wrote the famous "Inleiding tot de Hollandsche Rechtsgeleerdheid" (Introduction to Netherlands Jurisprudence), which is excellent because of its clearness and simplicity; Huber sketched "De Hedendaagsche Rechtsgeleerdheid" (The Jurisprudencè of The Present Day), in a more dogmatic fashion, and van Leeuwen "Het Roomsch-Hollandsch Recht" (RomanNetherlands law). This last work, together with the much more Roman book of Voet (a commentary ad Pandectas) is the work on Netherlands law at the time of the Republicthat is still most generally consulted. Van Bijnkershoek. of Zealand, a sagacious magistrate, found, inspite of hisfunctionfts President of the "Hooge Raad" (Chief Council), an opportunity to compose a series of valuable writings, one of which gave us the following maxim: "potestatem terrae finiri, ubi finitur armorum vis" — the truth of which is now-a-days recognised.
Just as jurisprudence was deeply coloured by Roman law, so had education been led in that direetion. In the University of Leyden, founded in 1575, they taught exclusively Roman law as far as Civil law was concerned, and the same state of things may be noticed at the universities of Groningen, Utrecht and Harderwyk, erected in the seventeenth century, and at the Frisian University of Franeker. The examinations, disputations and graduations were about parts of the "Corpus Juris", the natural consequence of which was that a degree gave no guarantee of practical ability, but was simply an ornament of theoretic learning. Hence for a long
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time it continued to be the custom to take one's degree at a foreign university: the foreign law could be learned there as well as at home. But in the seventeenth and eighteenth cent-
Promotion "cum cappa."
uries there comes a change: a place, though a very modest one, is yielded to the national law in the universities, and
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now 011 the contrary a great number of foreigners, especially Germans, attend the Netherlands universities. The eminent professors teaching in our universities, many of whóm were famous all over the world, attracted the foreigners. We have already spoken of Gekard Noodt, but may still mention the famous Hugo Donellus, who worked for some years at Leyden, Böckelmann, Arnold Vinniüs and Johannes Voet at Leyden, the Bouricttjses, the Hübers, the Pagknstecbers and Cornelis van Eck, who was the teacher of van Bijnkershoek. Amongst those of special renown on account of their many foreign pupils, were in the eighteenth century: Antonius Schultingh, Johannes Ortwintjs Westenberg, and for public law Pestel, the author of the first great work on Netherlands public law. The latter part of the eighteenth century could boast of van der Keessel, who wrote an important supplement to de Groot's "Inleiding tot de Hollandsche Rechtsgeleerdheid".
The study of international law and of the law of nations flourished especially in the seventeenth century. With regard to the first, the Netherlands school has formed a doctrine of its own, the creators of which were Patjlus Voet and the Utrecht councillor Christiaan Rodenbubg, besides the above-mentioned Johannes Voet and Huber. As regards the law of nations, a foremost place is taken by De Gboot with his famous work "De Jure Belli ac Pacis" (1625), which for many centuries formed the basis for the study of the law of nations. The second place is taken by Dirk Graswinckel, like De Groot a native of Delft, who wrote about the suprème rights of the State — though his work is of less importance.
We should not forget that the influence which the foreign law possessed in theory, far surpassed that which it possessed in practice, in the every-day application of the law. Here the old Netherlands law could not be pushed into the corner to such an extent as was possible in the study. We can only say that it suffered under the oppression of the foreign law and gradually lost its vital power; but in several respects, and in more than one sub-part, it showed its tena«ity, and maintained itself.
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This was partly due to the improvements made in the law by the legislation of the provinces and towns. For in th« seventeenth century these strongly took up reformation and codification. A foremost place is here taken by the provincial codifications of Drenthe (of 1608,1614 and 1712), Friesland (of 1602 and 1723), and Overyssel (of 1630) and by the "Landrechten" in the seventeenth century of the different parts of Gelderland and Groningen. Other provinces did not get as far as codification, but they laid down a few general ordinances of importance. Of the towns that followed in the regulation of their law, we ought to mention: Middelburg, 's-Hertogenbosch, Maastricht, Leyden, Gouda, Tiel, Zutphen, Harderwyk, Deventer and Zwolle — to conclude by pointing to the highly important commercial ordinances of Amsterdam and Rotterdam. In spite of all this, the general condition of justice during the period of the Republic remained confused, uncertain and unsatisfactory. The Penal law and the law of Procedure, which were strongly influenced by politics and political rivalry among the different parts.of the State, were especially in a bad condition.
The eighteenth century, with its spirit of criticism, shows us the first serious doubts as to whether it was right that Roman law should have such a prevailing influence. The Groningen professor Frederik Adolf van der Marck stood foremost in this respect, and is of importance as a student of the special law of Groningen. The school of Natural Law also formed at this time a reaction against the confusion and uncertainty by which the law was characterised, which they imputed to the maintenance of the many foreign and antiquated ideas of justice. They tried to find in Reason the source of a new kind of law, destined for all times and peoples. The ohe-sidedness of this school and their breaking with every historical rule caused their attempts to fail in the end.
The Republic of the United Netherlands went down heneath its own shortcomings and its discords. Purified by the intermediate French period, it was reorganised as the Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1813. During that time people had learned to value the advantages of the unity
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State, and they could profit by this knowledge also with regard to justice and jurisdiction. The unity State, organically divided into provinces and communities, grew throughthe genius of Johan Rudolf Thorbecketo be the State weknow at present. It is to his influence more than to any other that we owe the Constitution of 1848, which made the form of government into a constitutional monarchy, based on the principle of ministerial responsibility and the representative system. After thisr Thorbecke became the creator of the Provincial. law of 1850 and the Municipal law of 1851 — both founded on the Constitution of 1848 — whose fundamental idea is this: that Province and Municipality have no sovereignty of their own, but have an independence, under the highest authority of the State, which allows autonomy and self-government, but goes no further than is compatible with the preservation of the unity of the State. The present Constitution of 1887 has been built on the one whose foundations were laid in 1848: when it was made, the regulation of elective franchise was the principal point.
Public law is described in the different writings of Thorbecke, and from another political side in the works of the statesman and creator of the anti-revolutionary science of politics, Guillaume Groen van Prinsterer, Thorbecke's contemporary. Besides this, the book "De Grondwet" (the Constitution) of the Leyden professor Buys is of special importance for theory, whilst a separate place is occupied by the description of "Onze Constitutie" (Our Constitution) by the still living Minister of State, Jhr. De Savornin Lohman.
The unity State brought the need of a common Civil and Penal law and a law of Procedure thatshould be connected with this. After 1813 the French codes that had been introduced in this country, were at first maintained, but the work of national legislation was strongly taken in hand. Professor Johan Melchior Kemper had a great influence on the composition of this legislation and the way in which it was formulated. In 1814 he was appointed President of the Commission for its composition, which in the same year presented to the King a plan for a Criminal Code, a Com-
52



mercial Code and one for the manner of procedure. Kemper worked chiefly on the Civil law. With regard to this he advocated the construction of an original Netherlands Code, while the majority of the Commission wanted to have nothing but a Netherlands revision of the French "Code Civil". In principle the King agreed with Kemper's opinion. In the end a Civil Code, a Commercial Code and a Code of Civil Procedure were composed and became law in 1838. They were for the greater part imitations of the French codes, which themselves were formed on a Roman basis. It is true, with respect to several subjects modifications were made in the laws of the French codes; there Was sometimes a return to the provisions of the old Netherlands law, and new provisions were added here and there; but considered as a whole the legislation of 1838 is of a French cast.Regarding the Commercial Code we must specially point out the fact that in many respects it follows more closely the law of the time of the Republic, where itfound a model in the excellent commercial ordinances of the Republic, so well reputed as a commercial nation. For the rest this revision of the French codes, which according to form and language created an entirely new legislation, was often veiydefective, and it has not unjustly been condemned that in the composition of the Netherlands codes they neglected in our country to pront by what literature and jurisprudence had shown to be defects in the French codes, which had been in operation for many years.
The "Code Pénal" was also maintained after 1838, and only a few important modifications have been made; for instance, capital punishment was abolished in 1865. It was as late as 1886 that a national Penal Code came into force; this excellent piece of legislation is due to thé Leyden professor and Minister of Justice Mr. Modderman.
The administration of justice is in the hands of tribunals, composed of professional lawyers, united under a suprème Court of Justice, the "Hooge Raad der Nederlanden", in substance what the French call a "Cour de Cassation." Without doubt the civil legislation of 1838 did not give to the national law the place to which it wasentitled; itisantiquated,
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notwithstanding it has been partly revised ; but apparently not so antiquated that plans for a revision of the whole meet with approval among lawyers Owing especially to the influence of what is seen abroad, there is a keener desire for a revision of the civil law of procedure. Mean while, opinions are divided as to whether it would be desirable to follow the Austrian or English example. State Commissions have been formed several times, whose task it was to plan new codes, but it never got beyond plans. Nearest at hand — and indeed particularly necessary — seems the revision of the law of criminal procedure. As concerns the material law, military penal law, antiquated for more than a century, was regulated anew by a code that has been waiting for years to be put in force. It was made under the auspices of the ex-professor Van dhr Hoeven. In reality military criminal procedure is still moving in the garb of the law as it stood at the time of the Republic, which was only partly revised by an Act of 1912.
In this way legislation lags more and more behind the requirements, because of the slowness of the legislative machine; that which the legislatpr does not give, is expected from the judges: a justice and jurisdiction that satisfy the wants of the time. That the study of the civil law suffers from this, is not to be denied. Unsatisfied, attention has to a considerable extent passed from the civil law on to the public and administrative law — to which, moreover, attention has been drawn in many ways. Even before this, tbe interest in Roman law was diminishing, whereas that in the old Netherlands law in its historica! signification has been increasing since the middle of the nineteenth century.
If we take a still closer survey of jurisprudence and juridical education in this country during the nineteenth century, we notice that even in the opening days the ideas of those who wished to regard the instruction in Roman law at the universities not as an aim, but exclusively as a means, were gaining ground. The histOrical school, such as had developed in Germany under Huoo and Von Savigny, also found strong adherence in this country and was
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advocated at the universities by more than one professor; we mention among others the well-known Utrecht professor Holtius. We find a decrease in the number of Romanists in the latter part of the nineteenth century, after the study of Roman law had been pushed into the background under the present regulation of university education. It is only in his first year that the law student learns anything about Roman law; after this it disappears for ever from the series of subjects and — it almost goes without saying — also from the students attention. Among these few Romanists we may mention the Groningen professor Moddersian, who besides giying a sketch of the reception of Roman law — which has gained much fame in foreign countries — wrote a manual for the study of that law which — afterwards completed by his successors — ia at present still the only one that is generally used.
Since the enforcement of the national codes, the study of Netherlands law has been characterised by an enthusiasm for codification, and since the middle of the nineteenth century by a methodology which acknowledges and cherishes the statute-law and nothing but this law, as the source of civil law and as its only source. Even after history gradually regained its rights, the statute-law still remained the watchword: it was and is the atarting-point of the two great commentators OpzooMEBand Diephuis. On the other hand, we meet with a broader spirit in the big work on civil law by the Groningen professor Land (who also works in history), which is a quarter of a century younger and the latest book published on this subject. But gradually the want of enthusiasm for the science of private law becomes more and more visible, and science experiences a drawback in the backwardness of legislation and the often insufficiënt accessibility of the judges on matters of social wants and — as a consequence of this — the ever-widening gulf between law and people. In order to find freshness and originality one should read the numerous essays of the recently-deceased Utrecht professor, Hamakeb.
With regard to private law, the instruction at our universities is of such a kind that reforms are thought highly
55



necessary; the chief desire is to bring instruction into closer contact with practical life.
We noticed a decline in the study of the history of Roman law; the study of the old Netherlands law and its history has become of greater importance since the middle of the nineteenth century. Under the direetion of the professors de Geer van Jütphaas, Fruin and Pols (all of Utrecht), and afterwards of the Utrecht archivist Muller and the Leyden professor Fockema Andreae, the publication of our old legal sources and the study of the old Netherlands law attained new prominence.
As already observed, attention has in some respects passed from private law to public and administrative law; men of universal knowledge, like Johan de Wal and de Pinto, were also first in this matter. The present State Counsellor, Mr. Oppenheim, the profound scbolar and describer of Netherlands municipal law, was the founder of a school. We have already spoken of Buys and will still mention the Groningen professor Tellegen. As a teacher of Penal law Van Hamel, for many years a professor at Amsterdam, has added lustre to the Netherlands name at home and abroad. Together with the Belgian Prins and Professor Von Liszt, of Berlin, he formed the International Society of Penal Law.
The international place of the Netherlands in the field of jurisprudence was strengthened, if by anything, by the codification of international law, with which a beginning was made by Asser. May the future give it a more peaceful field of work than is at present the oase!
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MEDICAL SCIENCE IN THE NETHERLANDS by E. C. VAN LEERSUM.
AT the foundation of the Universities the number of teachers was haturally small. There were, of course, only few teachers available at that time. This applies especially to the Faculty of Medicine, which had to be satisfied with one single professor. At Leiden Professor Geraert de Bont (Bontius) had charge of the complete education of the medical students. Curiously enough his first pupil was an Englishman, Jacobus Jaimes, who had himself entered as a student of medicine on April 21st of the year 1578. His example was followed in 1596 by no fewer than five of his fellow-countrymen, and with these young men began to flow the wide stream of foreigners who, in the course of time, have come to hear the famous Leiden professors. That this stream gradually dried up, is by no means because present university education in the Netherlands is less attractive and excellent than it used to be, but because there, just as elsewhere, Latin, the old language of scholars, had to give way to the native language. But this barrier only affects the lectures and not in the least the intercourse in the laboratories, for there the foreigner, thanks to the Netherlander's well-known talent for foreign languages, is sure to find several people sufficiently acquainted with his native tongue to converse with him. Foreign scientists who coine to work in the Netherlands laboratories, are therefore no longer the exceptions. .
The Anglo-Saxon.race has always been best represented among the visitors of the Netherlands universities. Of the 137 students who graduated at Leiden University in the first 50 years of its existence, no fewer than 21 were Englishmen, as compared with 11 Germans, 2 Frenchnien, 2 Danes and 1 Italian.
The Groningen University could also boast at first of
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only one medical professor, viz. Nic. Mulerius. How close the relations with Great Britain were also in the northern part of the country, is shown by the appointment of the Scotch scholar William Macdowel, of St. Andrews, as Professor of physics and metaphysics.
Utrecht's first and, at first, sole representative of the medical faculty was Willem van debSteaten (Stratenus), m ention ed by many — although not on sufficiënt grounds — as the first Netherlands professor who taught clinics, that is, gave practical medical instruction at the bedside. And here too it was many years before another was appointed besides him. This was Henricus de Roy (Regius), who caused a good deal of commotion as a defender of the Cartesian philosophy, but who should especially be mentioned here because, following Sylvius, de Wale and other Netherlands medical scholars, he defended Harvey's doctrine of the circulation of the blood and did much for the development of this very important view. There were at the start but very few students at Utrecht; during the first five years of the existence of this university the number was not more than 35.
At Franeker Alardus Auletius was the first medical professor, and here, just as elsewhere, the number of students was at first very small. From 1589, the year of his appointment, till 1603, Auletius had in all 38 pupils. The first Englishman came to the university in 1593; the German nation was represented by the greatest number, but representatives of many other European nations were also found there, even one from distan t Morocco.
Harderwijk, the youngest of the four universities in the North of the Netherlands, had Jacobus Kochius as its first professor of medicine. This university has not always been of good repute. There was a time when people mockingly said:
"Harderwijk is een stad van negotie, Men verkoopt er bokking, blauwbessen en bullen van promotie."
(Harderwyk is a commercial town where they sell bloaters, bilberries and doctors' certificates).
But this school was not an exception in that respect, and
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we only refer to the case in order to point outanabuse which was general at that time, and may still exist — fortunately not in the Netherlands, however. The famous French medical scholar Gtjy Patin expressed himself in this way about it: "Le parchemin qu'ils (the young doctors) rapportent des universités est une marqué certaine de 1'argent, qu'ils y ont laissé; mais la science requise a leur art, oü est-ce qu'elle se trouve a vendre?" Meanwhile, there have been times also when people considered it an honour to possess the Harderwijk "Gap", otherwise the great Boerhaave would not have taken his degree at Harderwijk.
Several circumstances contributed to make all these schools highly prosperous and procure for them a foremost place amongst foreign institutions for university education. The tried spirit of liberty of the people in the Northern Netherlands offered frèe-thinking foreigners a guarantee that even the most sceptical among them would meet with a kind reception and find unlimited liberty of thought. The go vernors wisely understood that intercourse with foreigners gives our young men broader views, and so they tried to draw studente from abroad by attractive regulations and institutions. They were always bent on engaging the best teachers for their universities, and being very well acquainted with what was going on abroad in the domain of natural science, and not biassed by too narrow national sentiment, they succeeded in making wise choices and never hesitated to offer the most favourable and tempting terms whenever they might win for their school some celebrity or fortunate owner of valuable scientific collections. The Leiden governors soon gave evidence of this broad view by appointing the herbalist Rembert Dodoens (Dodonaeusï of the Southern Netherlands, teacher of medicine, and conferring the title of Professor Honorariusupon the world-famous botanist Jules Chables de l'Ecluse (Cabolus Clusius), which latter appóintment was made apparently with the sole purpose of adding greater lustre to the name of the University, for Clusius had a weak constitution and his health was so bad that he had to be excused from teaching. They further used to organise competitions for those scholars who were
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considered likely candidates for a vacancy, to ascertain which was best qualified for the position.
The governors extended their care not only to the teaching profession, but also to the equipment of the universities. The Netherlands scientific collections have been famous at all times, for the governors spared neither costs nor trouble to make them as complete as possible. The great commercial companies were able to offer important contributions to these collections, thanks to their numeroüs relations with oversea countries, and sometimes it seemed that the university governors tried to attain the same end by the indirect means of an appointment. Thus the governors of Leiden university doubtless had their eye in the first place on his rich collection when they tried to persuade the Enkhuizen physician, Bernakdus Paludanus, to accept a professorship in botany and superintend the Hortus botanicus. The Leiden hortus acquired great renown by its wealth of exotic plants and not less by the excellent teaching of men like Hebmann and Boebhaave.
Equally famous were the anatomical collections, especially the one at Leiden and the private collection of Frederik Ruysch, the Amsterdam anatomist, who was undoubtedly one of the best preparators and dissectors who ever served the science of anatomy. This is strikingly demonstrated by the fact that Ruysch's collection was sold to the Czar Peter for 30,000 guilders ($ 12,000) — an enormous sum for those days! — and that within ten years he had another ready, which he was able to sell to the Polish king Johan Sobieski for 20,000 guilders 8,000).
Ruysch's anatomical preparations were simply miraculous in their natural outward appearance. The freshness of the face of a child's corpse conserved by him carried the Czar away to such an ex'tent that he kissed it on both cheeks! "Les momies de M. Ruysch", says the learned Fontenelle, "prolongeoient en quelque sorte la vie, au lieu que celles de 1'ancienne Egypte ne prolongeoient que la mort."
Those valuable proofs of the Netherlands art of preparation have perished, but fortunately some beautiful anatomical öbjects of the Leiden 'anatomists Albinus'"ana
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Sandifort have been saved and are protected from further ruin in the Leiden "Anatomisch Kabinet."
The old Netherlands art of preparation, which is even today admired by experts, is the result of the special preference with which anatomy was practised in the Netherlands. It accords with the conscientious nature of the Netherlander to start from the very foundation of a science by teaching from obvious facts. Hence Anatomy and the Clinics became the glory of Netherlands medical instruction. Anatomical instruction in the 16th century left almost everything to be desired in most of the European schools — those in the North of Italy excepted — and the student who wishedto study the structure of the human body, had to resort to imperfect illustrations and incomplete, inaccurate descriptions. It was only very seldom — sometimes with an interval of many years —" in a few of the large universities, such as Paris orMontpellier, that a subject was opened by the incompetent hand of an assistant — for the professor himself considered this work beneath him — and a very superficial examination of the internal parts was allowed. The practical nature of the Netherlands anatomists made them see that the study of a science which asked so much of the student's imaginative power could only be served by object lessons, and no trouble was therefore too much for them to proeure material, which was closely examined down to the smallest details. To this we owe the great number of their anatomical discoveries. Not content with their own studies, but at the same time actuated by thedesire to give permanence to the results of their labour for the benefit of others, they also published works on anatomy, and of these it may be said that they are among the best and finest books on the subject. When they were not themselves experts in the art of drawiug — like the famous anatomist Petrus Camper — they secured the assistance of eminent artists, as did Vesalius — to give an illustrious example — who for the illustration of his matchless work called in the aid of the great Jan Stephan van Calcar, Titian's pupil. That Bernhard Siegfrted Albinus's large anatomical atlas approaches perfection, is to be attributed in no small degree to the assistance of the exceedingly clever
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and conscientious artist Jan Wandelaab. The able Gekard de Lairesse devoted his talents to the pictures of the valuable atlas of Godfried Bidloo, which was afterwards published under William Cowper's name.
How popular the science of Anatomy was in the Netherlands, is proved by the numeroüs pictures called Anatomical Lessons, of which most glorious specimens may be seen in almost every museum. Indeed, no more beautiful and dignified homage could have been paidto Netherlands anatomists than by the brush of a Rembrandt (Anatomical Lesson and Dr. Deyman's Anatomy), a Gerrit Dou (Vesalius's Anatomy), a Miebevelt (Anatomical Lesson of Doctor van der Neeb), an Adbiaen Backeb and Johan van Neck (Anatomy of Fredërik Ruysch) and so many others who form the glory of the Netherlands school of painters.
Pieter Paaw is the best-known anatomist in the earlier years of the Leiden university, and he fully deserves this distinction, because he has done so much for practical instruction. In one of the old pictures of the Leiden theatrum anatomicum we see Paaw represented in the midst of objects of all kinds and of diverse origin and surrounded by a crowd of spectators, whose variety of costume reminds us of the many foreigners attracted by his excellent teaching.
The case of the Albinus, father and sons, confirms what was said before, that the Netherlands authorities, bearing in mind the fact that knowledge and science know no geographical boundaries, did not allow themselves to be influenced by any narrow-minded patriotism when filling the chairs with the best teachers. Bkrnhard Weiss (Albinus), who first — but in vain — was called to a chair at Groningen and afterwards became a professor of medicine at Leiden, was a native of Dessau. His son, Chbistiaan Bebnhabd, who was charged with the teaching of anatomy and medical practice at Utrecht, was born at Berlin. Another son, Bernhabd Siegfbied, born at Frankfurt, to whose anatomical atlas we have already referred, was certainly one of the greatest anatomists who taught in the Leiden University, and after his death he was succeeded by the youngest of the three, Friedbich Bebnhabd.
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Sylvius, the well known clinical professor and famous representative of the Ohemiatric School, was also of foreign extraction. In order to prove that even now-a-days the authorities are not at all averse to appointing foreigners in Netherlands universities, we may mention the names of three of Billroth's best pupils, Salzeb, von Eiselsberg and Narath, who in many ways contributed to the development of modern operative surgery in the Netherlands. But in its turn this small country gave to others a Moleschott (Italy), a van 't Hoef (Germany) and a Wenckebach (Austria).
The name of Sylvius puts us in mind of another institution which contributed in a high degree to the reputation of Netherlands medical men. We mean the custom of teaching at the bedside. It was for a long time held that in the Netherlands this kind of instruction was first of all given at Utrecht University. The fact is that on March 17th, 1636, the Utrecht professor, Willem van der Stbaten, intimated in an oration that he intended to give students an opportunity of examin ing patients and of learning how to make a diagnosis, but whether he carried out his intention is nowhere stated. On the other hand it appears from an authentic document, discovered a few years ago, namely a Resolution of the Leiden governors of December 4th, 1591, that even at that time, as much as 40 years earlier than at Utrecht, some people's minds were occupied with the same problem: and indeed, taking into consideration the well-known diligence of the Leiden governors of that time, it is not impossible, but even very probable, that a beginning was made with the plan the faculty had proposed to the board. However this may be, clinical teaching soon became a general practice in the Netherlands, which contributed nöt a little to the respect for the education in this country. For, wyith the exception of a few Universities in the North of Italy, where a patiënt was sometimes shown to the audience, there was nowhere in Europe an opportunity for qualifying oneself in the examination of patients, unless one became the private pupil of some physician and visited patients in their homes with him. This, however, was an uusatisfactory proceeding, as there could be no question of regular observation of the progress of a disease or checking
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Sint Cecilia-Gasthnis at Leiden, the Hospital where Hïrmak Bokbhaaye (1668—1788) gave his Clinical Lectures.



the diagnosis after death. The ad vantage of practical teaching lay in the fact that students were given the opportunity of seeing patients regularly and noticing the effect of the treatment with their own eyes, whilst dissection after death enabled them to judge of the changes brought about in the organism by diseases. It so happens that we still knowin what manner these practical lessons were given, and the place where the master of medical clinical teaching, Herman Boerhaave, devoted himself to this, has also been preserved. Boerhaave's most celebrated pupil, Gerard van Swieten, who was appointed physician to the Empress Maria Theresa of Austria and charged with the reform of medical education in Vienna, was familiar with a system of shorthand, in use in England, and so able to take down literally the lessons of his great master These valuablenotesarekept in the Imperial Library at Vienna and have partly been deciphered *). (Seepp. 72—73).
Whereas Sylvius had succeeded in gathering a large Netherlands and foreign audience around him by his interesting lectures, the stream of pupils flowing to the Leiden University, increased yet more under the eloquent Boerhaave. Among his pupils were the most celebrated men of that time, Linnaeus and Haller, Pringle and Ribeiro Sanchez, to mention but these few. Monarchs like the Czar Peter, who visited the Netherlands, also came to Leiden to make the acquaintance of Europe's medical teacher, and from distant parts sick people came flocking to him, in the hope of being «ured of their diseases under his treatment. How highly Boerhaave's school was valued abroad, is proved by the appointment of Boerhaave's pupils, van Swieten and de Haen, at Vienna. The former, as the Empress's confidant, possessed power and means to release education at Vienna from oppressive reactionary bonds and entirely reform it, whilst the latter, continuing the work of his fellow-countryman, laid the foundations of the greatness of the Vienna
*) For this cf. an essay, dedicated to the Saint Louis Medical History Club, in Janus, Archives Intern, p. 1'Histoired.l. Médecine, etc XVe Ann., 1910, and another one in X Vlle Ann., 1912.
«6



clinical school, at the same period in which the famous Jacquin taught Chemistry and Botany there, and the naturalist Ingenhousz, the discoverer of the secret of the respiration of plants and of the microscope cover-glass, advocated the application of vaccination against small-pox.
This cover glass, the inconsiderable, but for the microscopist indispensable appliance by which he protects his minute objects, leads us to another branch of science where the Netherlanders proved entirely at home.
We refer to the domain of the infinitely small, which cannot be examined with the naked eye. The question as to who invented the microscope, need not detain us here, the less so as Netherlands scholars can already boast discoveries enough with regard to this. Many still think the Middelburg Sacharias Jansen to be the ingenious man who, with or without his father's help, in 1590 invented the microscope, composed of two lenses. But this is of the less importance here, as the first great discoveries in this branch of science were made by means of a single lens. It was the modest usher of the "schepenen" (aldermen) of Delft, Anthony van Leeuwenhoek, who by means of simple little lenses, which he had to grind himself with infinite patience, succeeded in making a long series of discoveries. Among these are some of the utmost importance, as for instance that of bacteria and infusoria and the capillary circulation of the blood. Another pioneer in the field of Entoinology should be mentioned here, Jan Swammerdam, the modest naturalist, who preferred poverty to the luxurious court of Cosmo de Medici, and who acquired eternal fame by his Biblia naturae, in which he recorded his numerous observations.
Though we have hurried across the field which the Netherlands medical scholars so successfully cultivated, our survey is by no means complete. We ought to mention more names, such as Reinier de Graafe and Hendrik van Deventer, the latter of whom stands in the first rank in obstetrics. But space is limited, and we find.ourselves compelled to take leave of the Medical Netherlands of former ages in order to pay a short visit to the Medical Netherlands of today.
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One of America's greatest sons once said: "No man e'er was glorious who was not laborious !" Though the Netherlander is entirely justified in glorying in his scientific forefathers, he would soon disgrace his good name if he were to think that he may rest on the laurels they won. The Netherlander has been able to learn from his ancestors that the gods help those who help themselves, and a glance at the scientific Netherlands of the present time will show us that this race of diligent and ingenious workers is not yet extinct.
On the surface it seems as if it feil behind during the 18,h and 19th centuries, at least judged by the Standard which Alphonse Decandolle used for fixing the scientific value of a nation, namely by ascertaining how many of its sons formed part of the principal learned societies, such as the Royal Society and the Académie des Sciences. One would then have to agree perhaps with the famous botanist, that the Netherlands gradually lost its scientific significance. But this only applies to the first half of the 19lh century, when the country had still to recover from calamitous party strife and the French rule that succeeded them. After this there was fortunately a turn of the tide, and Decandolle's prophecy that a return of the old scientific glory might be expected in the Netherlands has come true. This can be proved convincingly by another Standard which may be just as safely used when judging the state of science, namely the Nobel prize, which bas already been carried off by no fewer than four Netherlands scientists, a number which, taking into consideration the sunall number of inhabitants of the country, surpasses that of other nations, relatively and almost absolutely too.
As far as medicine is concerned, we may boast of a continuous development in the Netherlands. This is due for a considerable part to what a van 't Hoef and a Huqo de Vries achieved in cognate branches of learning, physicsand biology.
The fundamental parts of medicine, anatomy and physiology have once more, as in former times, exercised their power of attraction on the younger scientific Netherlands.
In Bolk and Winkler anatomv found once more
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brilliant exponents; whilst with respect to physiology, the name of Donders is sufficiënt to recall the glorious times of former ages. Donders, one of the greatest physiologists of his time and an oculist of great éminence, made Utrecht, the town where he lived, a meeting-place of young scholars, among whom were many from abroad
One of Donders's contemporaries, Gerrit Jan Mulder, known among other things for his controversy with the master of chemistry, Von Liebig, is the Netherlands' first modern physiological chemist. Up to a few years ago physiological chemistry and pharraacology were taught at Amsterdam by Stokvis, who was also highly esteemed abroad, whilst at the present moment the first-mentioned branch of science finds an experimenter of the first order in the eminent and thorough Pekelhabing.
Of Donders's numerous pupils W. Einthoven and H. J. Hambubgeb are undoubtedly the best known.
The name of the former is among other things connected with the string-galvanometer, the extremely sensitive instrument, known all over the world, with which one can examine the electric phenomena accompanying the action of the heart. The latter's discoveries on the influence of salt solutions on the blood corpuscles, gave rise to an entirely new and promising branch of science, physicochemical biology. How much Hambubgeb's work is appreciated abroad, was proved at the successful Congress of physiologists at Groningen in 1913, where he occupied the chair and was honoured by the leaders of biological science, among whom were several well-known American scientists.
The practical parts of medicine are also in a flourishing condition. Interna! clinics may boast great men like Talma, Pel and Wenckebach, the latter of whom was lately appointed first at Strassburg, then at Vienna.
Conscientious surgeons like Kobteweg and Rotgans apply themselves to their profession in a scientific manner and add daring to old-Netherlands cautiousness. And the art of a van Deventeb finds a worthy representative i n the witty and capable Hectoe Tbeub.
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It is to men of this kind that the education of future medical men in the Netherlands is today entrusted.
The number of medical professors is 50 in all, 9 of whom are extraordinary ones. The Leiden faculty has 10 ordinary and 3 extraordinary professors, besides 2 lecturers and 6 private lecturers. Utrecht possessesll professors, 8 lecturers and 5 private lecturers. Groningen numbers 9 professors, 2 extraordinary professors, besides 1 lecturer and 5 private lecturers; whilst the Amsterdam faculty has 11 professors, 4 extraordinary professors and 18privatelecturers.
With one or two exceptions the equipments and arrangements for instruction may be called good, some even very good. Utrecht and Groningen possess excellent hospitals and laboratories, fitted up according to modern requirements. Leiden and Amsterdam will soon find themselves in the possession of new hospitals and laboratories. The Groningen laboratories especially may be called excellent, and the new physiological laboratory in that place surpasses the best that foreign countries are able to show in this respect.
These universities are attended by rather more than 1,800 medical students, among whom there are no fewer than 175 women. At the present time Amsterdam draws the greatest number, viz. 530. This populous city, with its trade and shipping, naturally provides abundant material for the hospitals, to the great benefit of the teaching. Next comes the University of Utrecht, favourably situated in the centre of the country, with a number of students almost as large as at Amsterdam. Leiden numbers more than 300 medical students and Groningen more than 200. The education of these students is scientific in the full sense of the word. It takes about 7 years, of which one or two are given to the stbdy of physics, chemistry, botany and zoology, two to the study of anatomy, histology, physiology, pathology and pharmacognosy, and about three to theoretical medicine, pathological anatomy, hygienics, pharmacology and the practice of medicine, surgery, midwifery and ophthalmology. In Leiden the instruction also includes the history of medicine, and with good reason, for a considerable part of this history is made by Netherlanders.
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Foreign students .are the exception at the lectures, because the use of the native language prevents their following the lessons with success. But, as mentioned above, this does not apply to the laboratories; those who work there can generally make themselves understood in two or three foreign languages. The knowledge of these is promoted by the reading of foreign literature, which is common in the Netherlands. At the present moment, next to Netherlands books and periodicals, German literature prevails, because German publishers take more pains to push their works than the English, American and French. If the American publishers were to exert themselves as much, they would certainly find many purchaser-s in the Netherlands, for the Netherlander knows how to prize the work of the American naturalists and medical scholars, besides feeling himself drawn to the American people on account of race affinity, similarity of character and former relations. It is to be hoped that the ties which have for many eenturies bound the two nations together, may become closer and closer, especially with regard to science, for intellectual honds are the most enduring.
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I ^^'^
< frt> Cl Bw*^' fyg&k nt-f p*'£_*K .'•
Shorthand notes of a clinical lectnre of Boerhaave, taken by Gkrard van S wikt en (1700—1772), physician to the Empress Maria Thekbsa. A transcription of these is also appended.



Lectiones praoticae in Nosocomio habitae. Lectio 1o, 17 ^ 87. 66 annorum senex.
i. Debemus examinare symptomata tam morbosa quam quae a natura aupersunt ima ex sanitate.
1 primo attendamus ad vitalem functlonem: primo pulsus qui promagna debiUtaU 3. apparente satls foitis, bene aequa, non vacillans sed exlguas pro huiusmodi vlro, •*. sic ut fere credamus vitalia, lascivum cor, arterias et quae illis adhaerent esn 5. in illa conditione unde continuatfo vitae sperari potest.
6 Inveni respirationem quam debemus 2*> considerare satis eommodam pro tam aegroto
7. homine. satis liberam, quam sic cognoscimus quando aer slne sonltu, sine
8. interruptione libere ducatur, teneatur, educatur sic ut non appereat in parte
9. aerifera pulmonis multum haerere quod impediat. respiratio satls est lenta,
■10. imo inter aerem conductum et emissum intercurrit spatium Ionge maiusquamin 11. moribundls vel debilissimis. Est sine strepitu nisi quod, quando materies in ■12. pulmone(m) aggregata est, auditur fervor, quem Hippocrates fervens guttur
13. vocat. Tussis non est adeo mala, necessaria ad educandam hanc materiem;
14. calor satis moderatus ad extrema usque sic ut pedes manus tangens
15. deprehendeiem aequum calorem. Displicet unum, quamquam maximum, quoad vitalia: situs
■18. corporis dum instar machinae deprehendalur projectis cruribus, in
il. dorso decumbens, hoe signum minus favet quoad vitalia, notaris debilitatem
18. unam magnam.
19. 66 annos natus, debilis, atrobiliosus, puer crassior, postea malis obnoxius morbis
20. acutis validis quos incidit in tertianam epidemicam, morbus , ln
21. hydropam a quo inter 6 septimanas curatus fuit.
Practical lectures, held in the hospita!. First lectnre, Sept. 21, 1737. Old man, 66 years.
If we wisb to examine a patiënt, we should pay attention not only to the symptoms of bis present disease, but also to tbose which point to bis previous state of bealth. First of all we should observe the vltal functions. Taking into conslderatlon the extreme visible weakness of thi3 patiënt, bis pulse is pretty strong and equal, though small for such a man, so that we should be incllned to thlnk that tbe vltal forces. the vivid heart, the arteries and what is connected with them, are in a state which gives hope that he will live.
The respiration, wbich we must observe in the second place, is not so very bad for a man in sucb a condition; the air is drawn in, beid and breathed out again without sound or interruption, from which we may infer that there is not much la the respiratory passages which prevenls him from breaihing freely. His resoiration is ratber slow, there is even between inspiration and expiration a much longer pause than we generally notice with very weak or dying people. There is no whlstllng, but when there is too much mucus in tbe lung, we bear the rattling noise that Hippocrates called a "boiling larynx". His cough is not a bad sign, on the contrary it is necessary for bringing up the mucus.
The waimth in the peripheral parts is moderate, so that in feellng his hands and feet, I observed the same temperature as elsewhere. There is one thing I am not satlsfied with, which is a very important symptom as far as his change of life ls concerned: the posilion of hts body: that he lies on his back in such a passive attitude, his legs all relaxed. This symptom is alarming for the prognosis, for it betrays great weakness.
Man of 66 years, weak and bilious; as a boy he was rather fat and afterwards be went tbrough many violent acute diseases; had tertiana epidemica, then dropsy, of which he recovered within 6 weeks.
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FACULTY OP MATHEMATICS AND NATURAL SCIENCE by j. a. vollgraff.
fPHE most glorious period in the history of the Netherlands, 1 the seventeenth century, is also a time of triumph for Mathematics and Natural Science. In the beginning of the seventeenth century the study of theoretical Physics, at the universities, was not yet sharply separated from that of Logic, Dialectics and Philology, so that often the same professors taught Philosophy Physics, Mathematics (and sometimes Medicine). In this period the natural philosophers did no experimental work, but chiefly kept to Aristotelian Physics, as for instance appears from the "Institutiones physicae" (1624) by G. Jack (Jacchaeus), a Scotchman, who after being a student at Leyden, became a professor in that University in 1612; also from the "Collegium physicum" (1642) by the Leyden professor f. P. Burgersdijk. Physics however (notwithstanding the relapse into scholasticism of men like Burgersdijk) gradually passed from this more or less mediaeval state into experimental Physics, after Professor W. Snel van Royen (1580—1626), Jack's more gifted colleague, followingPtolemy and other Alexandrines, the Arabian scholar Alhazen, etc, had made his optical experiments which led to the wellknown law of refraction. Light, according to Snellius as well as Alhazen, is an incorporeal substance, an energy, propagating itself through space. But it was not only in ancient literature that he sought his inspiration; he is also indebted for his methods to some Netherlands contemporaries, like S. Stevin (1548—1620) and some foreign ones, like Tycho Brahé. We may call him the first scientific Geodesist2),
1) As late as the eighteenth century the Professors'sGravesande and Musschenbroek had to teach Philosophy besides Physics and Mathematics.
2) His triangnlation extended from Alkmaar to Bergen-op-Zoom; afterwards it was continued by him as far as M alines.
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though he had been preceded by Gemma Frisius (1508— 1555, both years uncertain) a close observer also in the field of Astronomy. With instruments of his own and with some out of the collection of Prince Maurice of Orange he observed the cornet of 1618, the parallax of which he measured. Asto Stevin, the military and hydraulic engineer, who invented the sailingcar for his pupil Prince Maurice, Technics and Mathematics in his works go hand in hand. It was he who invented calculation with decimal fractions.
The consequence of the twenty years' rèsidence of Descartes (1596—1650) in the Netherlands was that his works made a deep impression here sooner than elsewhere; through him atomistics came to the front in Physics just as it was doing in other countries. Descartes in his Geometry did not break with the Ancients though he surpassed them; with respect to Physics he tried to emancipate himself from the opinions of the Greeks (Demokritos excepted). In this respect he differs much from Snellius, whom we may in comparison with Descartes call a humanist. Great was the influence of the latter on many Netherlands Professors; at Leyden Fr. van Schooien (f 1661), the teacher of Chr. Huygens, was an enthusiastic interpreter not only of Archimedes, Apollonios, etc, as Snellius had been before, but also of Descartes' mathematical methods.
The name of Ghristiaan Huygens(1629—1695) stands out among those of all other Netherlands Mathematicians and Natural Philosophers of his time; in him Mathematics, Physics, Astronomy and Mechanics are united into a harmonie whole. Though in his later years in many respects differing from Descartes, whom he had known personally, we meet in him until the end of his life with the same striving to explain ali phenomena by pressure and impact of small hard particles *). Probably he would not have been able to discover his famous theory, according to which light is transmitted by
A.t that time scientists had as yet no idea of the great velocities with which, according to the modern kinetic theory of gases, the molecnles of the air move throngh each other, and of the smallness of the spaceoccupied by thesemoleculesthemselvesin themidstof thevacuum.
sp



undulations1), without availing himself of the concrete image of spherical ether-molecules touching one another on all sides. With this creation of an ail-pervading 2) ether a problem had been thrown into the lists of Physics which gave and still gives rise to endless dispute: that we cannot now-a-days represent the ether to ourselves as Huygens did, may be generally acknowledged, as to the question whether there exists a light-ether at all, opinions remain divided. In the beginning the undulation-theory of Huygens had but little success; rather more than a century afterwards, however, it met with
Chr. Huygens room in the Observatory at Leyden, showing his lenses (made by himself and his brother), his clock and his planetarium.
general agreement, after Fresnel (beginning of the nineteenth century) had worked it into a theory of transversal elastic ether-vibrations, which in its turn was recast into an electroinagnetic light-theory by Maxwell (second half of the
"Traité de la Lnmière", 1690. 2) According to Aristotle the ether exists only above the ordinary atmosphere.
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nineteenth century); and of this last it must be said that of late years — no w that the opinion is gaining ground that between rnass and energy there is not so fundamental a difference as we used to think in the last century — it shows some inclination to be reconciled to Newton's corpuscular emission theory, which was at first thought to stand diametrically opposed to the doctrine of Huygens. Huygens occupied himself a great deal with the theory of telescopes; a complete edition of his work on this subject (Dioptrics) will be issued this or next year *). The construction of the first micrometers (ring and bar-micrometers) is due to him; we may also mention his telescopes of great focal distances, which combined a strong magnifying power with sharpness of outline. By means of these telescopes he recognised the true nature (ring) of thestrange appendages of Saturn, already observed by Galileo, and made (in 1659) the first drawings of Mars wbich have scientific value. He was also the first to appty himself to optical problems (double-refraction) with respect to the minerals qüartz and calcite; in Ch. Vr of the "Traité de la Lumière" he wrote about the molecular structure of crystals: "II me semble qu'en général les régularités qui se trouvent dans ces productions viennent du rangement des petites particules invisibles et égales dont elles sont composées". Of his further works we inention that on the pendulum clock and centrifugal force 2) and that on the collision theory 3). That Huygens was not only a skilled experimenter, but was also devoted to technical problems, is proved by his construction of clocks and watches and by his gunpowder-engine, which is a precursor of the steam-engine and other motors.
1) This will be the thirteenth part of the splendid edition of Huygens' works by the Netherlands Scientific Society, an edition in which J. Bosscha has had a great part and which is at present nnder the direetion of Professor D. J. Korteweg.
2) "Horologium Oscillatorinm", 1673.
3) "De Motu Corporum ex Percnssione", 1703.
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MATHEMATICS by j. cardinaal.
SIDE by side with Fr. van Schooten, H. van Heuraet and J. Hudde (1628—1704) distinguished themselves in the field of Cartesian Mathematics; like Huygens both of them were only in so far directly connected with the university that they had had their education there. Like them another man, of even greater fame and talents, J. de Witt (Grand Pensionary 1653—1672), a gifted Geometrician, at the same time the first who applied the theory of Probability to life assurance, accepted a post in the Government.
The eighteenth century is a period of working out and continuation rather than creation, yet at this time we meet with Joh. Bernouilli (1667—1748), Professor at Groningen, and W. J. 's Gravesande (1688—1742), Professor at Leyden, as eminent representatives of Mathematics.
With the opening years of the nineteenth century begins a time of new development. The Amsterdam Professor J. H. van Swinden (1746—1823) takes an active part in the introduction of the metric system of weights and measures and writes a book on Georaetry in which he opposes the ancient and current Euclidean method. We may note a development of mathematical instruction, appearing from the text-books by J. de Gelder, Professor at Leyden, and J. r. Schmidt, Professor at the Military School at Delft. They were written in behalf of both university and preparatory instruction and also with a view to technical instruction. Schmidt published a translation of L. F. Lacroix's Descriptive Geometry. Most probably this is the first work on this subject in the Netherlands; at least H. Strootman, who published a Descriptive Geometry in 1841, says that there exists only one Netherlands work on this science and that even this is a translation.
In the next period we notice among the Netherlands
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Mathematicians a growing inclination to follow the elegant methods of the French text-books. Several names of eminent men might be mentioned, but we shall confine ourselves to two Netherlanders who were known abroad: R. Lobatto, Professor in the Royal Academy at Delft, and D. Bierens de Haan, Professor at Leyden *).
If we look at the condition of Mathematics in the Netherlands about 1870, the following things strike us. On the one hand we find the instruction in Mathematics widely extended by the foundation of secondary schools, eveningclasses for the middle-classes, technical schools, as well as by the broader view taken of this instruction at the Polytechnic School and Universities; on the other hand much in it is still defective. In the first half of the nineteenth century Geoinetry developed rapidly in neighbouring countries; at the same time the field of Algebra and Analysis was very much enlarged. During the period we have just now considered, we do not notice many traces of this development in the Netherlands and instruction is very little affected by it indeed.
After 1870 there comes a change and in 1880 many mathematicians apply themselves to the theory of invariants, the function theory, the theory of numbers, modern geometrical methods, complexes and congruences, cinematic methods; we may also notice a great rise in the study of theoretical Mechanics. All this also affected University education, so that of late years the Netherlands may be said to have taken an active part in the development of Mathematics. Of great influence on this development was the Netherlands Mathematical Society at Amsterdam. For many years already this Society had published a periodical and had regularly given the opportunity of solving mathematicalproblems and prize subjects, but now regularly recurring lectures were held about all branches of Mathematics; under the name of *Revue Semestrielle des publications mathématiques" a general survey was given of all mathematical periodicals. With respect to this period we mention the deceased Groningen Professor P. H. Schoute (1846—1913), a talented
80
') Of. F. Müller's "Gedenktagebuch." (Teubner).



representative of Geometry, espec'ally of the Geometry of more diinensions, and Th. J. Stieltjes (1856—1894), famous on account of Analysis, who taught in France. A discussion of the merits of those who are still alive would be out of place. We will be content to mention without further comments the names of those who teach in the Netherlands Universities: at Leyden P. van Geer and J. C. Kluyver; at Utrecht W. Kapteyn and J. de Vries; at Groningen F. Schuh and J. H. Barrau; at Amsterdam D. J. Korteweg, Hendrik de Vries and L. E. J. Brouwer; and at the Technical University at Delft J. Cardinaal, G. Schouten, J. G. Rutgers, W. H. L. Janssen van Raay, W. A. Versluys, and J. A. Schouten.
The principal periodicals published in the Netherlands which accept articles on Mathematics are: "De Verslagenen Verhandelingen der Kon. Akademie van Wetenschappen te Amsterdam", the "Archives Néerlandaises", the "Nieuw Archief voor Wiskunde", the "Wiskundig Tijdschrift", the "Vriend der Wiskunde", and the "Nieuw Tijdschrift voor Wiskunde."
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PHYSICS by J. A. VOLLGRAFF.
AT the Leyden University experimentalinvestigation took a more systematic character in Huygens' time. In 1674 a laboratory was established there. The air-pumps that were constructed under the direetion of the Professors B. de Volder (end of the seventeenth century) and W. Senguerd (beginning of tbe eighteenth century), were of some renown.
The fact that Huygens (who resided at Paris for a long time) did not occupy a public Chair and did not form any direct pupils, explains that the most famous Netherlands Professors 1) of Physics in the eighteenth century — W. J. 'sGravesande (1688 — 1742) and P. van Musschenbroek (1692—1762) — showed themselves, even in the theory of light, dependent on Newton rather than on him. 's Gravesande's teaching, together with that of Boerhaave in Chemistry and Medicine, drew students from all countries; se veral of the instruments, described in his famous text-book "Physices elementa mathematica", constructed in the workshop of the Musschenbroeks at Leyden, are even now in good condition. Professor P. van Musschenbroek is best known for the invention of the Leyden jar and the construction of the pyrometer, an instrument for measuring expansion by heat. Unlike Musschenbroek, 's Gravesande does not give a foremost place to atomistics, as he refrains as much as possible from hypotheses. I n the dispute about the question whether the energy of a moving body is in direct proportion to its velocity (Descartes), or to the square of its velocity (Huygens and Leibniz), 's Gravesande placed himself first on the former standpoint, but his experiments caused him to recognise the truth of the newer doctrine, of
1) 's Gravesande taught at Leyden, Musschenbroek first at Utrecht, afterwards at Leyden.
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which he now became a zealous defender. He did not go so far as Leibniz, who already believed in a universal conservation of energy in nature.
The first half of the eighteenth century is followed by a period of decline: great scientists were wanting until the second half of the nineteenth century, though mention should be made of M. van Marum (1750—1837) at Haarlem, who made many experiments on electric discharges and whose huge electric engine is still the great attraction of the Teyler Museum in that town 1).
Dr. J. D. van der Waals, born Nov. 23,1837, formerly Professor ot Physics in the University of Amsterdam.
Between 1850 and 1860 J. Bosscha2) (1831—1911) applied himself to investigations as to the validity of the Law of the Conservation of Energy in electric currents. He wrote
!) The Teyler Museum contains a beautiful historical collection of physical instrnments. The laboratory belonging to this Museum has of late been newly equipped under the direetion of Prof. Lorentz.
2) Since 1873 Professor at Delft.
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the most extensive text-book on Physics in the Netherlands language (afterwards often revised and still in common use).
The erection of the laboratory for Physics at Leyden in 1880 was an important factor in the national revival of this branch of science. Professor P. L. Rijke was the man who restored experimental Physics to a place of honour at Leyden. In 1873 J. D. van der Waals (born in 1837) *) took his degree there. His dissertation, entitled: "The continuity of the- liquid and gaseous states", followed by
Ir 0. wr
£ lij ffigglt^^^^^^éÊmS a r'jsÊt W*i'WMi?'' 'ml
Dr. H. Kamerlingh Onnes, bom Sept. 21, 1853, Professor^of Physics in the University of Leyden, in his cryogenic Laboratory.
many theoretical investigations connected with this subject, has had a strong influence on the direetion of the work performed in the Leyden laboratory. Since Professor H. Kamerlingh Onnes (born in 1853) became Director of this
Since 1877 Professor at Amsterdam.
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laboratory (1882), many — also foreign — scientists have experimenteel there on the transition of gases into liquids. Extreme accuracy of observation is the rule in this laboratory. Great cold being often required for the said transition, this work gradually led to a specialisation with regard to low temperatures (the so-called "cryogenic" laboratory). They are obtained by a cascade-process: methylchloride, ethylene, oxygen, air and hydrogen are liquefied successively. In 1908 Professor Kamerlingh Onnes succeeded'in liquefying the last "permanent" gas, helium.
Meanwhile many other experiments, on electro-magnetism, light, etc. were made at Leyden. Well known are the experiments of P. Zeeman (born in 1865) *), made in 1896, on the decomposition of spectra! lines by magnetic fields (the so-called Zeeman effect), which are still being continued at Amsterdam by the discoverer.
The most remarkable discovery that has been made of late years (1914) by Professor Kamerlingh Onnes is that of the supraconductive state, into which several metais are brought by the helium temperatures: their resistivities become so small that induced electric currents can circulate in them for many days.
One of the principal objects of Professor van der Waals was and is: to spread the belief in the reality of the small particles composing the material bodies, according to the kinetic theory of mattèr 2). H. A. Lorentz (born in 1853)3) showed himself as great an advocate of this creed (the truth of which may be considered to have been proved only recently). This does not prevent both scientists having an open eye for the advantages of phenomenological methods of in vestigation, especially for the thermodynamic theories of the profound American thinker W. Gibbs. Professor Lorentz,
1) Since 1900 Professor at Amsterdam.
s) Cf. his Oration on receiving the Nobel prize in 1910: „NobelVortrag vor der Kón. Schwed. Ak. d. Wiss", Stockholm, 1911. Hereit may be also mentioned that Lorentz and Zeeman together acqnired the Nobel prize in 1902 and that Kamerlingh Onnes obtained it in 1918. The latter received the Franklin medal in 1915.
3) Since 1878 Professor at Levden.
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S6
who has successfully worked in all branches of modern theoretical Physics1), is without doubt one of the most shrewd and most comprehensive minds among the now living Physicists. As a problem which has always particularly occupied him we may mention that of a possible influence of the motion of the earth through space on light and other electro- magnetic phenomena on the surface of the eai th; with respect to this the experiments of the American SGientists Michelson and Morley have always commanded his greatest attention. Whereas the objective reality of a rotation of the
Dr. H. A.'Lorentz, born Jnly 18, 1853, Professor of Physics in the University of Leyden.
earth is in itself acceptable, this can perhaps not be said of the objective reality of a translation of the earth. The modem views on the relativity of the conceptions of space and time are (if we neglect the influence of Kantian philosophy)
*) Part of his work appeared as "Abhandlungen über theoretische Physik" I, Leipzig nnd Berlin, 1907.



87
for the greater part a consequence of Professor Lorentz's views. He has also much occupied himself with the theory of Electrons *); the variahility of the mass of the small particles when in rapid motion, specially attracted his attention. This variahility of the mass of particles emitted by radio-active substances makes it impossible to consider the so-called Classical Mechanics (of Galileo, Newton, Lagrange, and others) as furnishing the most accurate and complete description of natural phenomena: we said before, speaking of Snellius and Huygens, of Fresnel and of Maxwell, that new opinions (or should we say old opinions in a new form ?) about mass and energy are beginning to make their way. Professor Lorentz occupies an important place among those who take an active part in the development and sifting of these ideas.
We must further mention that the physical laboratories at present in use at the universities of Utrecht, Amsterdam and Groningen were resp. founded in the years 1876,1882 and 1892. The Utrecht Professor W. H. Juliusapplies himself to the physical theory of thesun. At Groningen important investigations have been made by Professor H. Haga and . the late C. H. Wind 2) on the deflection and polarisation of Röntgen-rays. Prof. Haga and Prof. F. M. Jaeger are engaged in the experimental study of the molecular structure of crystals, by means of Röntgen-rays; by this method, recently discovered in Germany, the existence of the "petites particules invisibles et égales," of which Huygens spoke, can be proved.
Besides those about whom we spoke before, we will mention the following Professors, who have all taken part in some of the above-mentioned experimental or theoretical investigations: at Leyden J. C. Kuenen; at Utrecht L. S. Ornstein; at Amsterdam R. Sissingh, J. D. van der Waals Jr., and Ph. Kohnstamm.
1) Cf. "The Theory of Electrons and its application to the phenomena of light and radiant heat", a course of lectures delivered jn ColnmbiaUniversity, New York, in 1906. (Leipzig, 1909).



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ASTRONOMY by w. de sitter.
]N the sixteenth century there had already been a few private observatories, such as those of Wilhelm IV of Hessen and of Tycho Brahé, which feil into disuse however with the death of the founders. The first official observatories connected with a public body were those of the Universities at Leyden [founded in 1632] and Utrecht [1642] Yet almost all astronomical work in the Netherlands has been done outside these observatories, which served almost exclusively for instruction.
To the great philologist Joseph Scaliger .2) Astronomy owes the introduction of the Julian period, which is still in use. J. F. Holwarda 3) made the first accurate observations of the variable star Mira Ceti (1639).
After Huygens, about whom we spoke before, nothing astronomical is to be mentioned in the Netherlands for the next century and a half. We need only draw attention to J. Lulofs 4) who observed the transits of Mercury in 1743 and 1753 and the transit of Venus in 1761.
The revival óf astronomy begins with F. Kaiser 6) to whom it is in a great part due, and who by many popular writings succeeded in rousing the interest of the authorities and the public. This led to the erection of the new observatories at Utrecht in 1854 6) and Leyden in 1860. Kaiser's scientific work, besides the fitting up and management of the Leyden observatory and the organisation of the meridian observations, chiefly extended to double-stars and planets.
1) Next came Copenhagen in 1666 and Paris in 1667.
2) 1640—1609; Professor at Leyden 1593.
3) 1618-1651; Professor at Franeker 1639. *) 1711—1768; Professor at Leyden 1742.
5) 1808-1872; Professor at Leyden 1840.
6) Enlarged and renewed in 1907.



His observations of Mars, from which, by combining them with those of W. Herschel and of Huygens, he deduced its period of rotation, are among the best of that time.
Kaiser was succeeded at Leyden by his pupil H. G. van de Sande Bakhuyzen. The latter devoted himself by preference to problems concerning the fundamental principles of Astronomy. Well known are: his instrument for the determination of personal errors, his investigations on refraction, on the variation of latitude, etc. At the Congresses at Paris of the Committee for the map of the heavens, as permanent Secretary of the International Geodetic Association and in many other functions he was one of the leading personalities in the internationalising of science, which is characteristic of the latter part of the nineteenth century.
In 1908 he was succeeded as Professor of Astronomy by W. de Sitter and as Directer of the observatory by E. F. van de Sande Bakhuyzen.
The astronomical chair at Utrecht was successively occupied by Kaiser's pupils M. Hoek (1859—1873) and J. A C Oudemans (1876—1898). The former chiefly applied himself to the study of cometary orbits; the latter is especially known for his triangulation of Java. Oudemans was succeeded by A. A. Nijland, who makes his chief study of variable stars.
At Groningen J. C. Kapteyn was appointed as Professor in 1878, and made the study'of the fixed stars his life-work. His parallax determinations with the Leyden meridian circle were the first obtained by that method. The photographs on which the Cape Photographic Durchmusterung is based, were measured at Groningen with the parallacöo measuring instrument invented by him. In the Astronomical Laboratory, the first institution of that kind *), Parallaxes and Proper Motions are determined from photographs made by varions observatories according to Kapteyn's methods, and there also the theoretical investigations are carned out which amongst other things led to the discovery m 1902 of the two star-streams. As a Research Associate of
*) Erected in 1896.
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the Solar Observatory on Mount Wïlson he is in close touch with American astronomers.
Dr. J. C. Kapteyn, born Jan. 19, 1851, Professor of Astronomy in the University of Groningen.
The data necessary as the basis of a thorough investigation of the constitution of the universe, are enumerated in the "plan of selected areas", drawn up in 1906, in the execution of which Observatories of all nations of both hemispheres are co-operating.
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MINERALOGY, GEÜLOGY and RELATED BRANCHES OF SCIENCE by j. van baren.
A. CRYSTALLOGRAPHY, MINERALOGY, PETROGRAPHY.
Ï?XCEPT Isaac Hollandus(f 1400), whose "Opera mineraJ lia" appeared about 1600, but are very little known at present, and Chr. Huygens, already mentioned before as investigator of the optical double-refraction, no names of influential scholars in these branches of science in the history of olden times 1) have been preserved.
In the nineteenth century certain views have been published on the building of calcareous deposits in brackish waters, as for instance the little lake of Rockanje on the island of Oostvoorne; these views are chemical rather than mineralogical 2).
When in 1876 the University Education Act was for the first time enforced, a Chair for the geological sciences was erected in each of the Universities (Leyden, Utrecht and Groningen). The one at Groningen was occupied by F. J. P. van Calker 3) born at Bonn in 1841, deceased at Groningen in 1913; the one at Utrecht by A. Wichmann, born at Hamburg in 1851. Whereas the former made important petrographic investigations into the nature of the Scandinavian boulders, which lie scattered in the North East of the
We pass over here thewell-known microscopistandself-made man, A. van Leeuwenhoek (1632—1723).
2) C. H. Bergsma: "B«sponsio ad questionem: Quaeritur an incrustationes indigenae sint chemicae, an yero alius originis" inthe"Annales Academiae Lugduno-Batavae" 1823
P. Gr. van Anrooy: "Dissertatie chymica inauguralis de incrustatione in lacu Rokaniensi" (Dissertation, Leyden, 1852j.
3) A biography with an enumeration of his writings, by H. G. Jonker, was published in the "Jaarverslag van het Geologisch Mijnbouwknndig Genootschap voor Nederland en Koloniën", Amsterdam, 1914.
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Netherlands and were brought there by the inland ice, the latter feels himself particularly attracted towards the Petrography of the Indian Archipelago and has published a great number of investigations on this subject.
Another highly talented student of the sciences mentioned under this head, was the early-deceased J. L. C. Schroeder van der Kolk (1865—1905)1), Professor in the then Polytechnical School (now Technical University) at Delft. Whilst Mineralogy owes to him an ingenious method for determining minerals according to the index of refraction, he enriched Petrography with many interesting studies on the microscopie nature of rocks from the Eastern part of the Indian Archipelago. He likewise published theoretical views on the hardness of minerals in connection with their cleavage, onthe "Sympathy" and "Antipathy" of the elements in igneous rocks, etc.
B. GEOLOGY.
More than in the realm of Mineralogy and related sciences, Netherlanders have applied themselves to Geology, for which science the extensive colonies especially offered an abundance of investigation material.
Of the years before the beginning of the nineteenth century we will here mention J. Le Franq van Berkhey (1729—1812), who investigated the soil of the Western part of the Netherlands; S. J. Brugmans (1763-1819), who devoted himself to the study of the soil round the town of Groningen; and J. H. Degner(1687—1756), to whom we owe a remarkable writing about the peat-bogs 2).
Of far more importance is Winand Carel Hugo Staring
J. Lorié: "Dr. J. L. C. Schroeder van der Kolk en zijn werkzaamheid" in the "Tijdschrift van het Koninklijk Nederl. Aardr. Genootschap-', 1905, with abibliography of his writings.
2) An enumeration of geological Literature with respect to the Netherlands, and running from 1784—1906, was published by H. G. Jonker ("Verh. der Koninkl. Acad. van Wetensch. te Amsterdam", 2»<i section, vol. XIII, Amsterdam 1907).
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(1808-1877) *) whom we may truly call the founder of the Geology of the Netherlands. He was the first to give a thorough geological description of the Netherlands soil (1860) and at the same time published an extensive geological map of our country (1867).
Thanks to the initiative of the late Minister of Agriculture, Commerce and Industry, de Marez Oyens, we have since 1903 a Service for the purpose of exploring the Netherlands for useful minerals (especially coals andsalts). Toitsdirector, van Waterschoot van der Gracht, and his co-operators Huffnagel, Jongmans, Klein and Tesch, we owe many valuable contributions to the knowledge of the geology and palaeontology of the Netherlands 2).
His work was, at least to some extent, continued by J. Lorié (born in 1852) to whom we owe a great number of writings on the deeper geology of the Netherlands, on our dunes and peat-bogs; on the diluvium of the rivers Rhine and Scheldt, etc With regard to our colonies we should make mention of Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn, born at Mansfeld in 1809, deceased at Lembang (Java) in 1864. To him we owe the exceedingly suggestive Standard work on the soil and vegetation of Java. Though geologically aself-educatedman he understood the art of drawing sceneries of landscape, some parts of which ought to be classed with classical literature. He was a man who in science, according to Gottfried Keiler, valued "die hingebende Liebe an alles Gewordene und Bestehende" higher than "das HerausstehlendesEinzelnen"3).
*) J. van Baren wrote a biography in the "Gedenkboek Dr W. C. H Staring, gehuldigd op zijn ICOien geboortedag", Tbe Hague, 1908, in which book we also find a bibliography by A. A. van Pelt Lechner.
2) A concise work on oar knowledge of the Netherlands was published in 1913 by Molengraaff and van Waterschoot van der Gracht as Number 3, Volume I, of the "Handbuch der regionalen Geologie" by G. Steinmann and O. Wilckens (Heidelberg). A voluminous book with numerons engravings and maps is: J. van Baren, "De bodem van Nederland", 2 vol., Amsterdam, 1908.
3) A biography by M Schmidt occurs in the "Gedenkboek voor F. Junghuhn", The Hague 1910, which book also contains a biblioeranbv byW.C. Muller. P J



94
Among the later investigators we should first of all mention the ex-Diréctor of the_Indian Mines, R. D. M. Verbeek, born in 1845, who acquired European fame on account of his unparalleled knowledge of the Geology of the Indian Archipelago. Next to his great work on the volcanic eruption on Krakatau, in the year 1883, science owes to him geological maps and descriptions of parts of Sumatra, Borneo, and the Moluccas, besides, in collaboration with the engineer R. Fennema (f 1897), a map with a description of the whole of Java, a work of vast importance *).
We also owe geological investigations of great importance to G. Molengraaff, born in 1860, Professor of Geology in the Technical University at Delft, who made great expeditions in Borneo (1894) and Timor (1911). For a long time he was leader of the geological service of the former Transvaal Republic.
The above-mentioned Wichmann, too, has to a great extent filled up the gap in our geological knowledge by his expeditions in the Eastern part of the Indian Archipelago (1889) and especially in New Guinea (1903).
C. PALAEONTOLOGY.
As early as the eighteenth century the wealth of fossil remains which are to be found in limestone strata of the St. Pietersberg near Maastricht led certain Netherlands investigators, such as P. Camper (1722- 1789) and his son A. Camper (1753—1820) to apply themselves to the study of this subject. Their Communications were founded amongst other things on the large collections which had been formed by two inhabitants of Maastricht: Drouin and Hoffmann; the afore-mentioned collections are still found in the Teyler Museum at Haarlem.
In the beginning of the nineteenth century there were
1) An enumeration of everything that has been written on the Geology and Mining of Netherlands India, was pnblished by Verbeek in the "Verhandelingen van hetGeologisch-MijnbonwkundigGenootschaü voor Nederland en Koloniën", vol I, The Hacue, 1914



three Netherlanders who made a closer investigation of the fossil fauna of South Limburg, the only one known in those days. They were Jozef de Bosquet, born at Maastricht in 1814 and deceased there in 1880i); Jean van den Binkhorsta) born in the neighbourhood of Oldenzaal in 1810 and deceased at Maastricht in 1876; and CasimirUbaghs3),born at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1829 and deceased at Maastricht in 1894. Of these three Palaeontology owes the most important writings to the first j they not only treated the fossils of the Cretacious formation but also those of the Tertiary strata. It is deeply to be regretted that the greater part of the treasures collected by them have gone to foreign museums. Probably this is the reason why their work was not continued by Netherlanders (T. C. Winkler, from 1864—1896 Conservator of the Teyler Museum at Haarlem, supplieda few minor contributions), and why they turned to the rich treasures Netherlands India supplied. Most of the study and investigation of the fossil remains which are to be found in the East Indian Archipelago is due to K. Martin, born at Oldenburg in 1851, the third scientist to whom in 1876 a Chair in the Geological sciences was offered, namely the one at Leyden. The material brought together during his years of travel in the West Indies (1886) and East Indies (1891 and 1910), besides that which had been collected by Junghuhn, Verbeek and others, he described in numerous monographs.
We ought to mention further Eug. Dubois, born at Eysden in 1858, Professor in the University of Amsterdam, who especially applies himself to the study of the fossil mammals and to whom science owes the stirring discovery of the fossil man-ape, the Pithecantropus erectus. This discovery was made near the village of Trinil on the
*) Cf. C. Ubagh's "Notice biographique sur J. Bosquet" (Annales de la Société géologique, tome VIII, Liège 1881).
2) ld. "Notice biographique du géologue Binkhorst" (Publ d. 1 Soc. hist. et archéol. dans le Dnché de Limbourg, Tome XXIII, Ruremonde 1886).
3) Cf. A. Erens: "Notice biographique sur C. Ubaghs" (Bulletin d. 1. Soc. beige de Geologie, Tome IX, Bruxelles 1896).
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Solo river in Java; the objects which were found there have given rise to a literature in itself.
Finally we ought to mention the name of Jacob Elisa Doornik *), born at Leyden in 1777 and deceased at New Orleans in 1837, who was among the few that cleared the way for Darwinism in the opening years of the nineteenth century aud who in 1808,1816 and 1829 2) pleaded ardently for the descent of man, in a way which was afterwards further extended and developed by Charles Darwin.
A biography of this remarkable Netherlander, who has been entirely forgotten, was published by J. van Baren in the "Jaarboek voor Geschiedenis en Oudheidkunde van Leiden en Rijnland", 6de Jaargang 1909, together with a bibliography of his writings.
2) Cf. J. E. Doornik: "Observations Concerning Eossil Organic Bemains" (American Journal of Science and Arts XV, 1829, p. 90).



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BOTANY by TH. VALETON.
WITH the revival of botanie science during the sixteenth century the Netherlands soon come to the fore. Botany then grew to be a description of plants, in which the art of printing and engraving played an important part. Famous as writers of "Kruydtboeken" (herbals) during this period are: Rembertus Dodonaeus (1517—1585), Carolus Clusius (1526— 1609) and Matthias Lobelius (1538—1616). During the two following centuries this at first rather disorderly description of plants developed into the science of phytography or systematic botany. It was in the Netherlands that this reformation took place: Carolus Linnaeus (1707—1778) lived in the Netherlands for three years (1735—1738) and here he wrote his most interesting pioneer writings (including "Systema Naturae" and "Genera plantarum"). The name of Clifford, burgomaster of Amsterdam, whose hospitality he enjoyed' during that time at the former's country-seat "de Hartenkamp" near Haarlem, was immortalised by Linnaeus in the splendid work "Hortus Cliffortianus".
Two factors contributed to make descriptive botany attain such a height in this period, viz. the enthusiasm for the foundation of botanie gardens, where indigenous and exotic plants are grown, by private persons as well as by universities, and the introduction of plants from — and scientific travels in — the Netherlands colonies through the medium and under the auspices of commercial magnates. The botanie garden at Leyden, the fourth in the series in Europe (Padua, Pisa and Bologna preceded), established in 1587, was soon the most celebrated of all. A long list of illustrious names is attached to this garden, the most famous among which are Clusius and Boerhaave, whose world-wide fame drew Linnaeus to the Netherlands. Among the Botanists in transmarine regions we must mention: Paul Herman ("Collected



travels from 1672—1680", "Museum zeylanicum", 1717), Rheede van Draakenstein ("Hortus Malabaricus", Amst. 1678—1703), J. Burmannus ("Thesaurus zeylanicus", Amsterdam 1737), L.Burmannus ("Flora indica", Leyden, 1768), N. J. Jacquin("Enum. Syst.", Leyden 1762) and many other works), Thunberg ("Flora Japonica", 1784) and above all the unequalled Rumph ("Herbarium Ambonense", Amst. 1741 - 1755).
In the beginning of the nineteenth century an event took place of far-reaching significance, viz. the establishment of the Botanical Garden ('s Lands Plantentuin) at Buitenzorg (Java) in 1817 (Reinwardt, Professor at Leyden, was the first Director, after him Blume, Scheffer and Treub), to which in 1845 the Herbarium was added, founded by the great Teysmann. Some time before (1828) the Government Herbarium had been erected at Brussels by Blume; it was soon afterwards removed to Leyden. Here the botanical treasures of the Archipelago were collected and even now, by the side of the sister institution at Buitenzorg, it forms the centre for the study of the Malay flora. Moreover, a large number of splendid works and detailed descriptions concerning this flora have appeared since the beginning of the last century. We may mention the. hames of Blume, Korthals, de Vriese, Junghuhn, Zollinger, Suringar, Boerlage, the transactions in "Mededeelingen en Bulletin van 's Lands Plantentuin", the "Icones Bogoiienses", "De Flora van Buitenzorg", and "Nova-Guinea" (Wichmann). A first attempt at bringing about a collective work, was made by the Utrecht Professor F. A. W. Miquel, Director of the Government Herbarium ("Flora Indiae Batavae",1859—'63). There is a continual increase of materials from the gradually more intensively explored colonies; those already collected (of which we should specially mention the enormous collections by Teysman in the Archipelago and by Koorders chiefly in Java) are not yet entirely worked out. The scant number of fellow-labourers have their hands still so full with the details, that we cannot expect that a more complete comprehensive work should soon be issued. Of late years, next to Leyden and Buitenzorg a centre for systematic botany has also been
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formed at Utrecht, where up to the present moment amongst other things the study of the West Indian flora has been successfully taken up. A flora of Borneo is in preparation at Leyden.
By the side of systematic Botany, the other branches of Botanie science too may boast eminent students in the Netherlands. Even among the first pioneers in Microscopie Botany we find A. van Leeuwenhoek ("Opera omnia", Leyden 1715—1722); in the nineteenth century Paul Harting
^^^^^^^^ ^^^^
Dr. H. de Vries, born Feb. 16, 1848, Professor of Botany in the University of Amsterdam.
was a microscopist of European fame; with regard to Physiology we should mention among the older scientists (eighteenth century) Paets van Troostwijck, Barneveld, van Marum, and Brugmans, in the nineteenth Rauwenhof and Hugo de Vries, whilst the name of Melchior Treub is con- . nected with numerous shrewdly conceived and artistically carried out investigations in the depaitment of Morphology,



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CmbryologyandPhysiologyCVerh. Ak. v. Wet. Amst." and Ann. du Jardin Bot. de Buitenzorg").
We should finally mention that Treub not only by his wn investigations, but even more by what he did for science •y erecting the laboratory for foreign scientists at Buitenorg founded for himself a monumentum aere perennius, ,nd that the ingenious ideas and untiring investigations till in progress of Hugo de Vries respecting the descent heory and heredity ("Mutations-theorie", 1901—1903), have reated new points of view and fresh sources of knowledge.



ZOOLOGY by A. SCH1ERBEEK.
1N the middle of the seventeenth century there lived in the J Netherlands the great naturalists Johannes Swammerdam (1687—1680) and Antony van Leeuwenhoek (1632—1723). - They were the leading Zoologists of their time, though both were automaths. The former chiefly applied himself to the Insects and the Mollusca and was one of the first who occupied himself with fecundation experiments. Through these he became a convinced ovulist. His principal work: "Bijbel der nature" (Bible of nature), Leyden 1737, was edited by Boerhaave and is illustrated by many accurate and artistic engrayings. The latter, at first destmed to be a merchant, amused himself with making systems of lenses with strong magnifying power and in this way constructed one of the first microscopes. With this instrument he discovered the Protozoa, the Bacteria, the cross-striajtion of the muscles, etc.
Th ese discoveries gave rise to much discussion on the generatio spontanea. It was under his direetion that Van Ham found the Spermatozoids in 1677, and this gave van Leeuwenhoek occasion to construct the theory of animalculism. Besides these, many other naturalists upheld the Dutch name, as forinstance P. Ruysch (1638-1731), known for his methods of injection and the discovery of the valvules in the lymph vessels; Antonius de Heyde (about 1675), the discoverer of the ciliary motion; and Reinier de Graaf (1641— 1673) after whom the enveloping case of the mammalian egg is called: the Graafian follicle.
In the eighteenth century many foreigners came to the Netherlands who, profiting by the large col'ections and the good opportunity for study, here made their great discoveries, increasing at the same time the fame of the country that offered them hospitality. Among these should be mentioned:
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A. Trembley, who here made his well-known experiments with fresh-water-polyps (1744); P. S. Pallas (1741-1811), who studied at Leyden and among other things describedthe menagerie of the Prince of Orange; and especially Carl von Linné (1707—1778). This great Swede took his degree at Harderwijk in 1735 and afterwards published many of hisclassic works at Leyden and Amsterdam. But the Netberlanders themselves also spread the name of their country far across its boundaries. Thus did Lyonet (1707—1789) whose monograph on Cossus caused a great sensation. The name of Peter Camper (17 22—1789) of whom Goethe said that he was "ein Meteor von Geist, Wissenschaft, Talent und Tatigkeit", is especially remembered for his investigations on the facial angle. With his "d'Amboinsche Rariteitkamer" (cabinet of Amboina curiosities, 1741), G. E Rumphius carried on the tradition which had been so well started by Volcher Coiter (1535—1600). He also published excellent illustrated works, in which Sepp followed him with the work on the Netherlands Insects (Butterflies), 1762, which has been continued hp to the present day. Much later Schlegel published large illustrated works on the birds of the Netherlands and its East Indies (1860).
In the nineteenth century therefore the students of Zoology found the ground well-prepared, especially so because private persons as well as societies and institutions founded large museums, the principal of which are: The Teyler Museum at Haarlem (1778), the Royal Zoological Society: Natura Artis Magistra at Amsterdam (1838) and the Rijksmuseum voor Natuurlijke Historie (Museum of Natural History) at Leyden. Many periodicals were published which accepted zoological treatises, such as: "Verhandelingen van de Hollandscbe Maatschappij van Wetenschappen" (the Transactions of the Netherlands Scientific Society, 1752) — afterwards: "Verhandelingen van de Koninklijke Academie van Wetenschappen" (the Transactions of the Royal Academy of Sciences, 1851) — "Tijdschrift voor Entomologie", 1858, "Tijdschriftder Nederlandsche Dierkundige Vereeniging" (Periodical of the Netherlands Zoological Society, 1875), "Notes from the Leyden Museum" 1879, "Archives du
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Musée Teyler", 1883, and for the Colonies "Natuurkundig Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indië" (Periodical of Natural History for Netherlands India, 1874).
The Netherlands Zoologists applied themselves to several branches of science. In the middle of the nineteenth century appeared the large faunistic work by A. Herklots (1853—'66) and the very extensive manual on the entire subject of Zoology by P. Harting (1862—'74). At that time the famous German naturalists E. Selenka and W. Engelmann were working in this country, both as Professors in the Netherlands Universities.
Paleontology numbered among its students T. C. Winkler, C. Ubaghs and Eug. Dubois, the latter being widely known by his discovery of the Pithecanthropus. Embryology, which was always diligently studied in the Netherlands, finds some of its leaders here: A. A. W. Hubrecht and J. W. van Wyhe. Among the Ornithologists H. Albarda and J. P. Thysse are authorities. The science of Entomology, which can boast such a glorious past in our country, is still diligently studied by, amongst others, J. P. van Bemmelen, Ed. Everts, J. Th. Oudemans, M. C. Piepers, and E. Wassmann and likewise by J. C. H. de Meyere and J. Ritzema Bos, which latter also in many ways try to make the scientific results conducive to practical uses. The investigation of the sea is chiefly in the hands of the Zoological Station of the Zoological Society at Den Helder (1875), many transactions of which were published by P. J. van Breemen, H. C. Delsman, P. P. C. Hoek (Sub-Director), H. C. Redeke (Director), J. J. Tesch, and others. Other zoologists too studied the sea, with which the country's national existence has been connected for centuries: the Siboga expedition (1899—1900) under the direetion of Max Weber, is a brilliant evidence of the energy and of the scientific mind of the Netherlands people. The lower animals are especially studied by J. E W. Ihle, J. G. de Man, H. P. Nierstrasz, P. H. Sluiter and G. C. J. Vosmaer; the Vertebrata by J. Boeke, L. Bolk, F. A. Jentink, R. Horst and Max Weber.



04
CHEMISTRY by w. p. jorissen.
ISA AC HOLLANDUS and Jan Isaacsz Hollandus may be 1 considered the oldest students of chemistry and alchemy that are known in the Netherlands; the latter lived about 1440. Their works were printed and reprinted between 1600 and 1746, especially abroad. These dates give an idea of the great importance that was attached to their experiments.
Of the Netherlanders who studied chemistry after them, but before the time when in our country this science was taught in a university, we may mention Cornelis Jacobsz, Drebbel (1572—1634) and Hermannus Pollinus (about 1590 — about 1650)*), whilst at the time when the iatro-chemist Franciscus de le Boe Sylvius (1614- 1672) gave his lectures in the Leyden University, Goossen van Vreeswijck (1626— about 1690) made his experiments with regard to mineral chemistry2). Drebbel probably already knew the fulminates (including fulminate of mercury) and had used them in the sea-mines, constructed by him in 1628.
The establishment of the Universities in the Netherlands (Leyden 1575, Utrecht 1636, Harderwijk 1648, etc.) and of some "illustre scholen" [illustrious schools] (Deventer 1630, Amsterdam 1632, etc.) was followed about 1660 by that of regular lectures in chemistry: among others by the abovementioned Sylvius, who became Prof. med. pract. at Leyden in 16581), but by the side of whom C. Marggraf (1626—1687) gave private lessons in chemistry.
The first chemical university laboratory in this country was established at Leyden in 1670 for the Lecturer Carel de Maets. Well known is also the laboratory of the Lecturer
1) "Chemisch Weekblad" 1914,822.
2) "Chemisch Weekblad" 1914,1076; 1916, 28.



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J. C. Barchusen (1666-1723), fitted out at Utrecht (about 1698). About the same time (1696) chemistry was for the first time taught at Groningen by R. Eyssonius (1655—1705).
It is well known how highly people thonght of Herman Boerhaave's (1668-1738) teaching in medicine and in chemistry also.
His "Elementa chemiae" were universally known and have exercised great influence here and abroad. In the laboratory of his successor H. D. Gaubius (1704—1780) qualitative and quantitative experiments were made, also by undergraduates, while several chemical dissertations date from the time when J. D. Hahn (1729—1784) was Professor at Utrecht. At Groningen the study of chemistry was led into goodtracksbyP.Driessen (1753—1828) 2). S. Stratingh Èzn. (1785—1841), his successor, also made a name for himself.
At Amsterdam, where chemistry made its first appearance at the Athenaeum in 17753), there worked the well known society of the "Netherlands chemists" (A. Paets van Troostwijk, J. R. Deiman)4), after whom the ethylenebromide is still called the "oil of the Netherlands chemists".
A second flourishing period for chemistry in the Netherlands is that which was introduced by G. J. Mulder (1802—1880) who, at first Lecturer at Rotterdam and from 1840—1867 Professor at Utrecht, must be considered the founder of chemical instruction in this country. Of the scientific investigations which he made, besides a great number of practical ones, those on the albuminoids have become most generally known. Two of his pupils, P. J. van Kerckhoff (1813 — 1876), Professor at Groningen, and Ed. Mulder (born in 1832) succeeded him. Another pupil, J. W. Gunning
ï) For the Leyden chemists cf.: W. P. Jorissen, "Het chemisch laboratorium te Leyden, etc.", 1909.
2) cf.: F. M. Jaeger, "De ontwikkelingsgeschiedenis vanhetchem. onderwijs aan de Groningsche Universiteit", 1912.
3) For the study of chemistry at Amsterdam from 1785 till 1895, cf. W. P. Jorissen and L Th. Eeicher: "J. H van 't Hoffs Amsterdamer Periode", 1912.
4) H. P. M. vau der Horn van den Bos, "Chemisch Weekblad" 1909,1.



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(1827—1900), from 1865 Professor at Amsterdam as successor of Mulder's pupil E. H. von Baumhauer (1820—1885), brought about the appointment (in 1877) of J. H. van 't Hoff (1852—1911) in the newly-erected University of Amsterdam. The latter's theoretical and experimental investigations introduced a new period in chemistry1). We only mention his theory of the "asymmetrical atom of carbon", his studies regarding chemical dynamics and his solution theory. His
Dr. J van 't Hoff, born Aug. 30, 1852, deceased March 1, 1911, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Amsterdam (1878—1895) and in the University of Berlin (1896—1911).
best known pupil, Ernst Cohen, Professor at Utrecht, is working in a department of chemistry connected with that of his teacher (allotropy, influence of pressure on chemical equilibrium, etc).
!) Cf. Note 8 on the preceding page.



Van 't Hoff's Chemical Laboratory at Amsterdam. J'



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Some years before van 't Hoff s arrival at Amsterdam, J. M. van Bemmelen (1830 -1911) and A.P.N. Franchimont (born in 1844) *) were appointed Professors of chemistry in the Leyden University. The former has been one of the founders of colloid- chemistry 2), the latter has raised the study of organic chemistry in the Netherlands to a considerable height. Specially known are his experiments on the nitramines. A pupil of van Bemmelen, H. W. Bakhuis Roozeboom (1854—1907) 3) applied Gibbs' phase rule to the heterogeneous chemical equilibria, on which subject at the present time several of his pupils, F. A. H. Schreinemakers (Professor at Leyden), A. Smits (Professor at Amsterdam), and W. Reinders (Professor at Delft) are still engaged with success. Of Franchimont's numerous pupils O A. Lobry de Bruyn (1857—1904) was Professor at Amsterdam from I896until his death. His experiments, especially those concerning the sugars, are well known. Another pupil of Franchimont, A. F. Holleman, Professor at Groningen from 1893—1905, became Lobry de Bruyn's successor at Amsterdam. His principal work belongs to the subject of the substitution products of benzine. Finally, two other pupils of Franchimont, P. van Romburgh and F. M. Jaeger, have been since 1903 and 1909 resp., Professor at Utrecht and at Groningen resp. Whereas the former deyotes hiraself exclusively to organic chemistry, the latter extended his investigations also to crystallography and at present chiefly applies himself to physico-chemical investigations in the domain of high temperatures. A pupil of Hoogewerff (cf. infra), J. Böeseken, Professor at the Technical University at Delft, is especially known for his work in connection with the Friedel-Craftssynthesis; a pupil of Lobry de Bruyn, J. J. Blanksma, succeeded Franchimont at Leyden in 1914. Again, mention should be made of J. F Eykman, Professor at Groningen, who has made extensive investigations in refracto-chemistry,
1) "Chemisch Weekblad" 1914, 382, 434,436.
2) Cf.: "Gedenkboek aangeboden aan J. M. van Bemmelen", 1910. 8) W. P. Jorissen and W. E. Ringer, "Mannen van beteekenis", 1907



and of S. Hoogewerff, until 1907 Professor at Delft, who in eollaboration with W. A. van Dorp (1848—1914) hasdone thorough organo-chemical work. With regard to analytic chemistry we should mention Professor N. Schoorl of Utrecht; at Delft this-science is taught by Professor H. ter Meulen
We must refrain from including the work of some Lec- 1 turers, and of a number of other in vestigators, owing to pres- '\ sure of space.
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CLASSICAL LITERATURE by P.C. MOLHUYSEN.
f THE literature taught in the universities of the Northern 1 Netherlands was at first chiefly that of the classical languages. The necessary attention was of course given to Hebrew, with a view to the future theologians, and not long afterwards Oriental literature was given a Chair of its own. With respect to Arabic, a large number of eminent scholars may be pointed to who taught at Leyden. The splendid collection of Oriental manuscripts of the Leyden University Library was naturally not without influence on the study of this language.
Not until 1797 was a Chair founded for the Netherlands language; in the three "modern languages" — French, German and English — instruction is given by professors at Groningen and Amsterdam and by lecturers at Leyden and Utrecht, but there is no doctorate in these languages in the Netherlands.
The study of the classical languages flourished especially at Leyden, and it is a very remarkable fact in the history of science that the Netherlands, which before the foundation of 1he first university was of no importance in this respect, soon took the lead and occupied a foremost place during nearly one and a half centuries.. It is only at Leyden that there is question of philological "schools." The study of Latin especially flourished there; criticism and exegesis attracted the attention of most people, besides the study of Antiquities, of which the huge Thesauri of the 17th and 18th centuries give proof. But one should bear in mind that the specialization of the branches of learning did not take place until the 19lh century, and that before that time our scholars rarely confined themselves to one subject only. Howmanyphilologists have there been, for instance, who have not shone forth also in the field of theology!



Leyden owes its prominent position in the first place to the two coryphaei who taught there in the first twenty-five years after the erection of its university: to the two of the "triumvirat littéraire," as Nisard so correctly termed it, to Lipsius and Scaligeb, who there found the peaceful surroundings which they most needed for their studies.
Justtjs Lipsius (1547—1606), a Belgian by birth and at first professor at Jena, was secured for Leyden by Janus Dousa in 1578. His name at once attracted many students, and he has had much influence on the development of that university. His great merits lie in his critical talents, to which we owe a good many publications, especially of Latin prose writers, such as Tacitus, Plinius, Velleius, Suetonius, and in his conscientious study of Antiquities. We may mention here: "de Gladiatoribus" and "de Militia Romana". Of his philosophical works 'de Constantia" lived to see almost a hundred editions. Famous too are his "Antiquae" and "Variae Lectiones."
Li psius's public return to the Roman Catholic Church, which he had liever wholly forsaken, and his flight to Louvain (1591), was a blow to the Leyden University that might have become mortal. But things took another turn. It was only with much difEculty and great sacrifices that the Curators of the University succeeded in persuading the famous Josephus Justus Scaligeb (1540—1609) to take the place of Lipsius, at first for the period of one year. But once at Leyden, he remained there until his death ; there he found the peacefulness for his studies which his own country, tortured by civil wars, could not offer him.
Scaliger's position at Leyden was a very uncominon one. Paid a high salary, without any obligation to teach, honoured as a prince, his mere presence made of Leyden a centre to which scholars and students came flockingfrom all parts of the world. ïhoroughly acquainted with classical antiquity and classical languages, a sharpcriticand man of refined culture, he stands high above his contemporaries. For a long time the Leyden University and the philological school were affected by his influence, much more than by that of Lipsius. Next to his editions of Latin authors: Ausonius. Festusand
112



11S
J. J. Scaligeb (born Aug. 4, 1640, deceased Jan. 21, 1609), Professor of Classical Literature at the University of Leyden. From an original etching by Goltziüp.



14
Manilius, we may here mention his two principal works in the field of chronology: "de Emendatione Temporum," written in France, and the "Thesaurus Temporum," published three years before his death, a pioneering work in which he tries to give a reconstruction of the "Chronica" by Eusebius, whose validity was to be proved only two centuries . later, when new manuscripts were found. He is fully entitled to the name of creator of historical criticism.
By the side of these men we find at Leyden: the Greek scholar Bonaventura Vulcanius (1538—1G14), a versatile linguist, who published text-editions and translations of many Greek writers, Byzantine ones among them, and amongst other things edited the older Lexicographers; the historian Paullus Merula (1558—1607), the editorof the Ennius-fragments, whose genuineness has long been wrongly doubted; and Dominicus Baudius (1561—1613), a Frenchman by birth.
Already during the lifetime of Vulcanius, who was blind in his old age, Daniël Heinsius (1580/1—1655), Soaliger's favourite pupil, was charged with part of the former's lessons. After the death of Vulcanius he took the latter's place entirely, and* so taught Greek at Leyden for about half a centuryHe was in his time of European fame; though tbday opinion regarding his critical talents is not so favourable as it used to be, he certainly does not deserve the censure passed on him by Lucian Muller. His work comprises the whole of antiquity, and his editions of classical authors are numberless; that of Aristotle's "Poëtica" especially made him famous far outside this country. His son Nicolaas (1610—1681), who far surpassed his father and was an exquisite Latin poet and founder of text-criticism of many Latin poets (sospitator poetarum latinorum), never held a post in the university.
In Janus Meursius (1579—1639) we meet with one of those writers to whose incredible productiveness full justice would no longer be done, now that the original sources are easily accessible to everybody, but who in earlier years succeeded by their great zeal in collecting the material of which succeeding generations for a long time also had the benefit. Greek Antiauities esneciallv attracted him. A complete



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edition of his collected works appeared at Florence in the course of the 18th century (ed. Lami).
Meursius, having become a professor in 1610, went to Denmark in 1625, where he taught at the Universitv of Sorö until his death (1639).
Latin grammar found an eminent scholar in Gerardus Joannks Vossius (1577—1649), a polyhistorian such as there are but few; for many years his manual was used in schools; it was even printed at Halle as late as the 18th century. We should further mention here his "de Vitiis Sermonis" (Antibarbarus). His literary histories, "de Historicis Graecis" and "de Historicis Latinis", were also used for many years; this latter work was even reprinted at Leipzig in 1833. Vossius, who since 1615 had been a regent of the theological "hospitium" at Leiden, the so-called "Staten-College", had to resign his post in 1619, at the time of the disputes between the Remonstrants and Contra-Remonstrants. Having been appointed as Professor logices in 1622, he taught at Leyden until 1631 and then became a teacher at the Athenaeum illustre, that had only just been erected at Amsterdam and to whose name he added lustre for another 17 years. His son Isaac, ambassador to the learned Queen Christina of Sweden, is especially known for his beautiful collection of manuscripts, the "Codices Vossiani", at present in the Leyden Library. Like Nic. Heinsius, he did not hold a post in the University.
In the same year that G. J. Vossius left Leyden, the Frenchman Claudius Salmasius (Claude Saumaise, 1588— 1653) was appointed a professor on the same conditions as Scaliger 40 years before; he was a man of genius, but extremely vain, and was not popular in the Netherlands. His continual disputes with his colleagues, especiaHy with Dan. Heinsius, dit not tend to render his residence at Leyden more agreeable and had a bad effect on instruction. In 1650 he too went to Sweden, to the court of Christina, where the disputes were continued with the scholars whom he found there, amongst others with Is. Vossius. His presence has not been of much influence on the development of philology in this country.



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Another illustrious period was introduced by J. F. Gronovius (1611—1671) who, after having been a teacher at the Athenaeum of Deventer from 1641, was appointed at Leyden. Though a teacher of Greek, his favourite subject was Latin; he was one of the greatest latinists of his time, having the whole field of literature from Plautus to the Ecclesiastics at his command. The prose writers stood first in his favour: Gellius, Livy, Seneca, and Tacitus, to mention but a few edited by him, are still of value. They are text-editions with explanatory notes and corrections; but the explanation is the principal thing to him. Of his treatises on antiquities we will here only mention his "de Sestertiis".
His friend and pupil, J. G. Graevius, succeeded him at Deventer and went to Utrecht in 1662, where he worked for 40 years with good results. By preference hetoo treated the Latin prose writers: besides being the editor of many Ciceronian works, he is especially known for his publication of three immense Thesauri: "Eruditionis scholasticse", "Antiquitatum Romanarum" (12 folio-volumes), and "Antiquitatum et Historiarum Italise" (9 folio. vol.8). However, he was not a great critic.
At Leyden Gronovius was succeeded by Th. Ryckios, the editor of Tacitus c. notis. Jacobus Gronovius, the son of the great J. F. Gronovius, became his colleague in 1679. The name the latter has left behind is entirely different from that of his father; the greater part of his numerous publications have been forgotten; only his "Thesaurus Antiquitatum Graecarum", in 13 folio-volumes, has done good service as a collectanea. Other pupils from the school of Gronovius are Petrus Francius, wbo taught Greek in the Amsterdam Athenaeum, and Jac. Perizonius, at first Professor at Franeker, and from 1695 at Leyden. His Aelianus edition, though too extensive, is not bad, whereas his "Animadversiones historicae" may be called a masterpiece of historical criticism. Before his death Graevius had obtained a colleague in his pupil Petrus Burman (1668—1741), who went to Leyden in 1715. His influence on the study of classical literature in this country has been extensive: the Latin authors that he edited are innumerable. They are the so-called "editionescum notis



117
variorum" with tedious introductions, conglomerations without any critical sifting of almost everything that could be brought together from older commentators. Por a long time this sort of edition has been the fashion. His pupils Torrenius, Snakenburg, van Staveren, the younger Burman, etc, each in their special branch of learning continued the work of thiéir master. Compared to the excellent work of Scaliger and Gronovius, Burman's school is decidedly a step backwards. We must acknowledge, however, that they have in a high degree promoted the study of Latin in the Universities, Athenaea and Latin schools.
With respect to Greek, we find a great scholar in the Franeker professor Lambert Bos (1670—1717), the editorof "Thomas Magister." The edition of "Thucydides" by C. A. Luk er (1670—1752), is also well known; Duker became Professor at Utrecht in 1713. His "Florus" and his work on the Latininity of the Roman jurists, had several reprints; his collectanea on Aristophanes, Suetonius and others, were used by later writers for their own editions of these,Gieek authors That on Livy was used in tftis way in the edition of that historian which was published in 7 quartos by Arnold Lrakenborch(1684 - 1748), Professor at Utrecht from 1716.
It was not a very happy choice when they made the theologian Sig. Havercamp (1684—1742) ProfessoratLeyden.lt seems that it must be attributed to Burman's influence that he and not Hemsterhuys was appointed His edition of Lucretius has been a failure in every respect. On the other hand, the appointment of Frans van OunENnoRP does credit to the Leyden University. His "Lucanus c. notis variorum" is a good edition, just as the Frontinus, Caesar, Suetonius and Apuleius. Even in the first half of the 19"'century his works were still being published in Germany
A nephew of the above-mentioned Burman was Petrus Burmannus Secundus (1714—1778), a voluminous writer, professor at Franeker and from 1742 at Amsterdam. He was highly praised as a teacher. Of his works we should here mention hls "Propertius", published as a posthumous work by van Santen, the "Rhetorica ad Herennium", which had several reprints, "de Inventione" and especially his Latin Anthology. 117



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If up to this time the attention of our philologists had been given especially to Latin, with Tib. Hemsterhuys, the talented pupil of Perizonius, there begins a revival of the study of Greek and a new period of glory for qhisgical literature in this country, which culminates in the triumvirate: Hemsterhuys, Valckenaer, and Ruhnkenius.
Hemsterhuys (1685—1766) was successively professor at Amsterdam, Harderwijk, Franeker and, after 1740, at Leiden. He completed the "Pollux" at an early age, that had been begun by Lederlin, just as the "Lucanus", with which he himself had made a commencement, wastinished by J. F. Reitz. Other authors, Aristophanes, Xenophon Ephesius, Hesychius, Callimachus, also owe a great deal to him. In the "Elogium" Ruhnkenius represents hls master tous as the perfect critic, whose mind went beyond the narrow bounds of one single branch of learning, who thought the study of history and mathematics necessary for the true philologist and for whom Greek was the gate to all further studies. Like Scaliger before him,, he thought the study of Latin impossible without that of Greek, and his great merits lie in the fact that he knew how to make this opinion popular.
And once more Leyden became a centre for the study of philology. From the school of Hemsterhuys proceeded Petrus Wesseling, Professor at Franeker, the learned editor of Diodorus and Herodotus; J. Ph. d'ORViLLE, Professor at Amsterdam, who together with Burman edited the well-known "Miscellaneae Observationes criticae"; and Joh. Schrader, Professor at Franeker, the editor of Musaeus, but still better known as an excellent teacher. We have already mentioned his pupils Valckenaer and Ruhnkenius.
L. C. Valckenaer (1715—1785) succeeded Hemsterhuys, first at Franeker, and then at Leyden. His principal work is the edition of the "Phoenissae" and "Hippolytus" of Euripides and of "Theocritus, Bion and Moschus." Heisa man who worked hard all through life and to whom his pupils owe a good deal of knowledge, an excellent teacher, but certainly the least important of the learned triumvirate.
David Ruhnkenius(1723—1798)hailingfromStolpin Pomerania. who came to the Netherlands attracted bv the



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fanie of Hemsterhuys's erudition, is of much more importance. After a long residence at Leyden and a shorter one at Paris, where he eonversed with English and French philologists, he returned to Leyden in 1757, to take the place of Oudendorp in 1761. He was then already known all over the world by his "Timaeus." During his stay at Leyden he wrote the dissertation on Longinus, the edition of the Homeric Hymnus in Cererem (the only manuscript that was known of this, he had bought for the Leyden Library from Matthaei, who pretended to have found it among a heap of rubbish in a stable at Moscow, whereas he had stolen it, as Gebhard was the first to point out), and the edition of the works of Muretus, the Italian Latinist, whom he highly honoured. Wolf dedicated his famous "Prolegomena in Homerum" to Ruhnkenius, as to the "Princeps criticorum". Among Ruhnkenius's pupils are the early-deceased Franeker Professor Gisbertus Koen (the editor of Gregorius Corinthius) and Daniël Wyttenbach, who — having come to the Netherlands, attracted by the fame of Ruhnkenius's learning, and having taught for some time at Amsterdam — succeeded him at Leyden in 1799. He is a good Latinist; asacritic, however, he is very much inferior to his predecessor. He devoted himself especially to the study of the Gréek philosophers. His edition of Plutarch's "Moralia" is well known and still useful. Wyttenbach's teaching was the making of many pupils: D. J. van Lennep (1774—1853), Professor at Amsterdam from 1799 until his death, and the editor of Ovid's "Heroides" and Hesiodus; W. L. Mahne (first Professor at Ghent, and after the severance of Belgium and the Netherlands Professor at Leyden from 1831), a man of mediocre talents, who published a good deal about the history of philology ; the philosopher Ph. W. van Heusde, Professor at Utrecht, and John Bake, who succeeded WyttenbAch after his death.
In the 19th century the critical treatmeut of the classics strongly comes to the front, indeed becomes predominant, often to the disadvantage of the realia. Here we should first of all mention P. Hofman Peerlkamp(1786 —1865), Professor at Leyden from 1823 until 1848, whose hypercritical



20
editions of Horace and Virgil give proof of hisgréat erudition and genius, but who fortunately formed no school; John Bake (1787—1864), a clever Latinist, author of the "Scholica Hypomnemata", and to whom part of the honour is due of having discovered the genius of Cobet; and C. J.C. Reuvens, the early-deceased archaeologist. We find at this time van Heüsde at Utrecht taught contemporary with him, as also P. van Limburg Brouwer at Groningen.
The latter part of the 19"' century is entirely controlled by the genius of C. G. Cobet (1813—1889), who after an excellent preparation — he had been given the opportunity of travelling in Italy for five years in order to study the Greek codices — became Professor at Leidenin 1845. Hisgrammaticcritical treatment of Greek and also Latin authors, based on an indefatigable reading of those authors themselves and supported by an unequalled palaeographic knowledge, made him the first Graecus of his time, a scholar who can only be compared with Scaliger and Bentley. Every philologist is acquainted with his "Variae" and "Novae Lectiones", first published in the "Mneraosyne", of which for many years he was the editor. He could speak Latin as but few have ever done.
S. Karsten, the editor of many Greek philosophers, was teaching at Utrecht in Cobets time; at Amsterdam J. C. G. Boot, known for his publication of the "Epistolae ad Atticum"; and at Utrecht again the younger C. M. Francken, editor of Lucanus. At Leiden Cobet's colleagues were J. G. Pluygers, and the lalter's successor J. J. Cornelissen, in whose teaching the realia once more became prominent. Amongst the pupils of Cobet are the intellectual S. A. Naber at Arasterdam, Tj. Halbertsma and H. J. Polak at Groningen ; at Utrecht J. van der Vliet, a man of general knowledge, also well known as a Sanscritist, and H. van Herwerden ; and finally Cobet's successor at Leyden, J. van Leeuwen, the profouud scholar and commentator of Aristophanes and editor of Homerus (together with M. B. Mendes da Costa), as also the author of the "Enchiridion Dictionis Epicae."



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OKI EN TAL LITERATURE by c. van
ARENDONK.
ÏITITH respect to Oriental languages University education tt in the Netherlands can boast a long series of eminent professors. Up to the latter part of the nineteerrth century this branch of learning embraced chiefly Semitic languages; in this group Hebrew especially — being indispensable to the knowledge of the Old Testament — look a foremost place, by the side of which Arabic and Aramaic were closely studied. The importance of Arabic forthe commercial and diplomatic intercourse with the Mohammedan States and rulers of Wes-. tern Asia and North Africa was conducive to the study of this language.
A short time after the foundation of the Leyden University (1575), the learned Drusius (f1616), who from 1572— 1576 had taught Hebrew, Chaldaic and Syriac at Oxford, was entrusted with theinstruction of these languages. In 1585 he accepted the appointment at the newly-opened University of Franeker, where his lectures drew students from most European countries. Feeling himself a linguist first of all, he held — for his time — a rather free point of view with respect to the interpretation of the writings of the Old Testament (Works: "Opuscula quae ad grammaticam spectant", Franeker, 1609; "Grammatica linguaesanctaenova",Franeker, 1612, etc). In 1586 the instruction of Hebrew in the Leyden University was entrusted to the learned printer Raphelengius, at first Professor Extraordinarius, and from 1587 Ordinarius. His "Lexicon Arabicum", for which he made use of Scaliger's "Thesaurus Linguae Arabicae", was afterwards (Leidae 1613 ex officina auctoris) published with "Observationes" by Thomas Erpenius, who had, urged thereto by Scaliger, set himself to the study of Arabic in Paris. Erpenius was in 1613 made extraordinary and in 1618 ordinary



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Professor of Oriental languages, Hebrew excepted, and was in 1620 also charged with tbe instruction of Hebrew. He may be coiisidered the founder of the scientific study of Arabic in Enrope; for rather more than a century and a half his "Grammatica Arabica"' (Leidae 1613) — several times reprinted and revised — served as a guide for the study of Arabic. Erpenius, who had an Arabic printing office fitted with all appliances at his own expense, further published amongst other works: "Grammatica arabica dicta Gjarumia ... cum vers. lat. et comment.," Leidae ex Typographia Erpeniana, 1617. His uHistoriaSaracenica, arabice et latine" (al-Makïn's historical work) was published shortly after his death with an introduction by Golius, while l'Empereur published his "Grammatica Aethiopica" and "Grammatica Syriaca et Chaldaica."
Erpexius (f 1624) was succeeded by his disciple Jacobus Goliüs (1625—1667) who had, at his tutor's suggestion, betaken himself in 1622 to Morocco (Saffi) for the study of Arabic, returning in 1624 with a number of-Mss. In order to enrich his knowledge of languages the Trustees of the University enabled him to travel in Syria and Asia Minor (1625 - 9) whence he returned with many Oriental Mss. His "Lexicon Arabico-Latinum", Lugd. Bat. 1653, was continually in use up to the nineteenth century. From his pen are the following text-editions: Kitab'Adja ib al-Maqdür fï Akhbar Tïmür, Ahmedis Arabsiadae Vitae et Rerum gestarum Timuri Historia," Lugd. Bat. 1636; "Kitab Muhammed b. Kathir al-Farghanï fi '1-Harakat al-samawïya wa-Djawami' Tim al-Nudjüm, Muhammedis fil. Ketiri Ferganensis .... Elementa astronomica," Amstelodami, 1669. He had a profound knowledge of Turkish, and as the results of his studies of Persian he left a "Lexicon Persicum," which was afterwards included in Castell's* Lexicon Heptaglotton," besides translations of Hafiz and Djami. In his later years he also applied himself to Chinese. Golius was the teacher of Levinxjs Warner, a serious student of Turkish and afterwards Ambassador of the States-General at the Porte, who bequeathed his highly important collection of Oriental Mss. to Leyden University. An eminent contemporary of Golius



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was Ludov. de Dieü, author of excellent works, such as ^Gramm. linguarum oriënt. Hebr., Chald. et Syr., inter se collatarum", Lugd. Bat. 1628; and "RudimentaLinguaePersicae", Lugd. Bat. 1639.
In 1627 Const. l'Empereur (f 1648) was made Professor of Hebrew and Chaldaic; he was a profound scholar of Jewish literature ("Clavis Thalmudica," hebr. et lat., Lugd. Bat. 1634). At Leyden the Oriental languages, especially Hebrew, were further represented in the course of the seventeenth century by Coddaeus (1601—1619), Uchtmann(1648 -1679), Hulsius (1668-1685) and J. Trigland (1686-1692).
At Franeker we see in this century, besides Drusius, Sixt. Amama (1616-1629; "Grammatica Ebrsea Martinio-
Buxtorfiana etc", Amstelodami, 1625, 1628, 1634;
"Ebrevsch Woord-boek", Fran. 1628), Fullenius (1629— 1636), Coccejüs (1636—1650; "Lexicon et Commentarius Sermonis Hebraici", Lugd. Bat. 1669), J. G. Terentius (1651- 1677; "Liber Jobi", chald. et lat., c. notis, 1662; "Gymnasium [also "Manuale"] Chaldaicum", Fran. 1664, etc), Van der Wayen (1677 - 1680), C. Vitringa (1680— 1682; "De Synagoga vetere Libri III", Fran. 1696) and J. Rhenperd (1682—1712). The latter also gave his attention to Palmyrenian and Phoenician ("Opera philoWica", Trai. 1722). J The Professors of this same period at Groningen were: Jac Alting (1643-1679; "Fundamenta Punctationis Linguae Sanctae", Groningae 1654, etc.); and Joh Braun (1680 — 1708; "De Vestitu Sacerdotuin Hebraeorum", Amstelodami 1680). At Utrecht: Joh Leusden (1653—1699), known for his "Clavis Hebr. Vet. Test.", Lugd. Bat. 1673, and especially for his edition of the Old Testament (Amsterdam 1660, 2nd ed. 1667). At Harderwyk, besides l'Empereur (1619— 1627), there were amongst others H. van Diest (1627 - 1640) and Joh. Meier (from 1684).
The direetion taken by the study of Oriental languages in the eighteenth century was fixed by Albert Schultens and his school. Whilst the study of Arabic and Aramaichad in the previous century not been entirely without influence on that of Hebrew, in general the Rabbinical tradition



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dominated here. It is Schultens' great merit to have brought out the worth of thé so-called "Dialects" for Hebrew, whereby the study of this language was led into fresh paths. In connection with this much attention was especially devoted to Arabic. As an accompaniment to these studies, a serious inquiry was made, amongst other things, into the geography of Palestine and neighbouring countries, and the religious institutions of Israelites and Mohammedans. The study of Persian and Turkish, however, that had been inaugurated in such a happy manner by Golius and Warner, feil into the background in this period.
In 1710 the chair for Oriental languages at Leyden was filled by Joh. Heyman (f 1737), who left a catalogue of the Oriental Mss. in manuscript. After having taught Hebrew as a Lecturer since 1680,0 Schaaf (f 1729) was made extraordinary professor of Oriental languages ("Opus Aramaeum, etc", Lugd. Bat. 1686; "Lexicon Syriacum concordantiale", ibid. 1717). As Professor at Franeker (1713—1729) and as Interpres Legati Warneriani and Professor at Leyden (until his death in 1750), A. ScHULTEWs-demonstrated in numerous works the connections of Hebrew with tbe cognate languages, especially Arabic, both grammatically and lëxicographically ("Thoraae Erpenii Grammatica Arabica cum Fabuï» Locmanni . ace Excerpta Anthologiae. ... quae inscribitur Hamasa Abi Teramam", Lugd. Bat. 1748 et 1767; "Origines Hebraeae I", Fran. 1724; Lugd. Bat. 1761; II, Lugd. Bat. 1738,1762; "Institutiones Aramaeae" p. 1—332, s. 1. e. a.; and many other works). His son J. J. Schultens (1749—1778) and grandson H. A. Schultens (1779—1793; before this at Amsterdam, from 1773) continued to work in this direetion. The latter published among other works: "Anthol. Sententiarum Arabic" (text, Latin transl., and notes), Lugd. Bat. 1772; and "Pars Versionis Arab. Libri Colailah wa Dimnah sive Fabularum Bidpaï philosophi Indi", Lugd. Bat. 1786. His "MeidaniiProverb. Arab. Pars" was edited by N. G. Schroeder (Lugd. Bat. 1795).
H. A. Schultens was succeeded by Scheidiüs (t 1794; from 1765—1793 at Harderwyk); his edition with translation of Al-Djawharï's Lexicon was left unfinished. He further



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published amongst other works "Ibn Doreidi Poemation", Hard. 1768; the same with Lat. translation and notes, Hard. 1786. After him S. F. J. Rau ("Descriptio et ExcerptaLibri Ahmedis Teifaschi de Gemmis et Lapidibus pretiosis", Traj. 1774) and van der Palm succeeded in turn as Professor of Oriental languages and Hebrew Antiquities.
In the eighteenth century the University of Utrecht numbered among its Professors the learned Hadr. Reland (1701 — 1718), who in his famous treatise "De Religione Mohammedica" (ed. II, Traj. 1717) was the first to consider the Mohammedan religion from a more liberal point of view and refuted many foolish conceptions concerning this religion. He occupied himself not only with Semitic studies, but also with Persian and with several languages of the Far East, such as Malay and Javanese ("Palaestina ex Monumentis vet. illustr.", Traj. ad Rh. 1714; "EncheiridionStudiosi Bo-' rhaneddin Alzernouchi', Traj ad Rh. 1709; "Dissertationes Miscellaneae", Traj ad Rh. 1708). His successor D. Millius (1718—1756) likewise applied himself to the non-Semitic Oriental languages (in "Miscellanea Orientalia", part of the "Dissertationes Selectae", Lugd. Bat 1743). Millius' place was taken by S. Ravius (1750- 1810), who left amongst other works "Diss. de Vindeinia et Torcularibus vet. Hebr.",
Traj. 1755; and "Exerc. de Anctore Comment. a Judaeis
Siphra dicti", Traj. 1751.
At Groningen O. Verbrugge taught Hebrew (Old and Rabbinical) and Aramaic ("Obss. philol. de Nominum Hebr. plurali Numero", Gron. 1730) from 1717—1745. From 1748—1798 N.W (G.) Schroeder was Professor ofOriental languages in that university tbefore this, from 1743, he had been at Marburg); he wrote a Hebrew grammar, that was particularly excellent in regard to syntax, and which was frequently used: "Institutiones ad Fundam. Linguae Hebraeae", Gron. 1766 (often reprinted). His translation of Ibn Duraid's al-Qasïda al-Maqsüra forms the basis of the one published by Scheidius ; whilst an edition of the HamUsa with translation and notes seems to have been prevented by his death.
Amsterdam had G. Surenhusius, from 1704—1729,



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known for his edition of the Mishna ("Mishna c comment. Eabbinorum, vers. Lat. et notis", Ainstelaed. 1698); C. H. Vonk from 1735-1753; W. Koolhaas ffbm 1753-1773 ("Obss. philol. exeg. in Libros hist. V. ÏY', Amst. 1755); after him H. A Schultens (until 1779)and D A.Walravbn (until 1804).
At the Franeker University there were during the eighteenth century, besides A. Schultens (from 1713 -1729), E. L Vriemoet ("Gramm. Altingiana et Syntaxis Buxtorfiana contracta, etc.", Fran. 1733 ; "Arabismus, exhibens Gramm Arabicam novam etc, Fran. 1733) during the years 1731—1760; S H. Manger ("Ahmedis Arabsiadae Vitae et Rer. gest. Timuri ... . Historia, arab. et lat.", Leovardiae 1767) from 1760—1764; J. H. Verschuir ("Diss. philol. exeg.", Fran 1773; "Opuscula", Traj. 1810) from 1764—1797; andE. J. Grkve ("Vaticin. Jesaiae Vol. postr. a Cap. XL usque ad LXVI", Amst. 1810; "Tractatus de Metris Hebr., etc", appendix to "Ultima Capita Libri Jobi ad Gr. vers. recensita notisque illustr ", Daventriae 1788 - 1791) during 1797-1810.
The Harderwyk University saw the instruction of Oriental languages (often combined with a theological branch) entrusted to: P. Ens, as successor of J. Meier (f 1725), until 1741 ("Ordo Fundamentorum Punctuationis indicatus",' Hard 1741); G. ten Cate, from 1741—1749; and Th. Scheltinga, from 1750—1765. The latter was succeeded for Oriental languages by the above-mentioned E. Schkidius, who, following the example of Erpenius, had aü Oriental printingoffice of his own at Harderwyk. When he departed (1793), his place was filled by H Muntinghe (until 1798)
Meanwhile the studies of the preceding centuries, a broader view of things, and a growing intercourse had gradually roused a greater interest in the East, its literatures and history for their own sakes. By means of numerous texteditions, historical-critical and linguistic studies, therepresentatives of Netherlands University Education in the nineteenth century largely contributed to enrichiug the knowledge of the East, particularly in the field of history and the development of Islam, and that of Indonesian philology.



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In 1817 H A. Hamaker was made extraordinary (in 1822 ordinary) Professor of Oriental languages and Interpres Legati Warneriani in the Leyden University; he had previously been Ling. Oriënt. Prof. at Franeker, since 1815. In the department of Semitic literature (especially Phoenician and Arabic) he supplied several important contributions, including "Incerti Auct. Lib. de Expugn. Memphidis et Alexandriae, vulgo adscr. Abou Abdallae Mohammedi Omari filio, Wakidaeo Medinensi," Arab. text with annot.. Lugd. Bat. 1825; and "Miscellanea Phoenicia", Lugd. Bat 1828. He also studied other Oriental languages. such as Turkish and Persian, and especially called attention to the importance of the study of Sanskrit. His successor was his pupil H. E. Weyers (from 1835—1844), who showed his great learning in but few writings (*Spec crit exh. Locos Ibn Khacanis de Ibn Zeidouno" and several contributions to "Orientalia", 2 vol., Amst. 1840—6). In 1845 Weyers' place was taken by Th. W. J. Juynboll, who had previously occupied the chair of Oriental languages at Franeker (1831—1840) and Groningen. To this scholar we owe: "Lexicon Geogr. cui titulus est Marasid al-Ittila' 'ala Asma al-Amkina wal-Biqa','' 6 vol, Lugd. Bat. 1850 —1864; "Abu '1-Mahasin ibn Tagri Bardii Annales", 2 vol., 1852-1861 (in collaboration with B. F. Matthes), etc.
Mention should also be made of his contemporary, R Dozy (f1883) who, having had as his teacher the conscientious Weyers, soon made himself known by important contributions respecting Arabic-Spanish history and was appointed Professor of Mediaeval and Modern History in 1850. The result of comprehensive, deep studies was the first critical treatment of the history of the Arabs in Spain: "Histoire des Musulmans d'Espagne, etc", 4 vol., Leyde 1861. The prelirainary studies for this work had been laid down in different text-editions ("Abdo-'l-Wahid al-Marrékoshi. The History of the Almohades," arab. text, Leyden 1847 ; 2nd ed. 1881; etc.) and treatises His extensive reading and sharp criticism led to his "Supplément aux Dict. arabes," Leyde 1877—'80, which isindispensable to Arabists.
After Juynboll's death Arabic and Aramaic were tem-



Dr. R. P. A. Dozï, born Feb. 21, 1820; deceased April 29, 1883. Late Professor of Mediaeval and Modern History in the University of Levden.
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porarily taught by Dozy, until in 1866 M.J.de Goejb became Professor of these languages — at first extraordinary and from 1869 ordinary professor. In consequence of the reorganisation of University Education, he was in 1877 exclusively charged with the lectures in Arabic. In a number of highly important text-editions he placed the chief works of the oldest Mohammedan historians and geographers at the disposal of Arabists, these editions including "Tabari, Annales," 15 vol. (in collaboration with other scholars under de Goeje's direetion), Lugd. Bat., 1879—1901; and "Bibliotheca Geographorum Arabicorum," Lugd. Bat., 1870—1894. By hispublications: "Diwan Poetae Abu-'l-Walfd Moslim ibno-'l-Walfd alAncarf," Lugd. Bat. 1875, and "Ibn Qotaiba, Liber Poësis ét Poetarum," Lugd. Bat. 1904, hecontributed to the knowledge of Arabic poetry. In regard to the critical treatment of texts De Goeje was equalled by no other scholar. Moreover, we have from his band many important essays (including "Mémoires d'histoire et de géographie orientales," Leyde, 1862—1903; an extensive Bibliography may be found in the "Levensbericht [Biography] van Michaël Jan de Goeje", by C. Snouck Hurgronje, in "Jaarboek der Kon. Akad. van Wetenschappen," 1909, p. 43—60).
His place was taken in 1907 by C. Snouck Hurgronje, who by his stay at Mecca and his long residence in Netherlands India, where he continually came into contact with Moslems, and in consequence of his study of their religion, had acquired an extensive and profound knowledge not only of the Arabic language, but also of Islam and of Mohammedan law in particular. He lectures on Arabic and the Mohammedan law and religion. Principal works: "Het Mekkaansche Feest" [The Meccan Festival], Leyden 1880; "Nieuwe bijdragen tot de kennis van den Islam" [New contributions to the knowledge of Islam] in "Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde van Ned. Indië," 1882; "De Islam" in "De Gids," 1886; "Mekka I" (The Hague 1888), II (ib. 1889); "Bilder aus Mekka," ib. 1889; "LeDroit musuiman" in Rev. de 1'Hist des Religions," vol. XXXVII (1898); "Nederland en de Islam", Leiden 1911 (French transl. "Politique musulmane de la Hollande"), 2ded., 1915.
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In regard to Arabic linguistics: "Mekkanische Sprichwörter und RedensarteQi?1 The Hague 1886, and contributions to the knowledge of the dialect of Hadramót in various articles. In thé field of Indonesian philology: "Studiën over Atjehsche klank- en schriftleer," Batavia 1892; "Atjehsche taalstudiën," Batavia 1900 ("Tijdschrift v. h. Bataviaasch Genootsch." vol. XLII); in that of Indonesian ethnography: "De Atjehers," 2 vol., Batavia—Leiden, 1893—'94; English translation: "The Achenese," Leyden 1906; "Het Gajöland en zijne bewoners" [The Gayö Country and its Inhabitants], Batavia 1903.
H. Oort was appointed in 1875 for University instruction exclusively in Hebrew and Israelitish Antiquities. His teaching embraced also Rabbinical Hebrew, whereas his studies by preference comprised the Israelitish literature and religion and Judaism. Under his direetion a new critical translation öf the Old Testament was made ("Het Oude Testament", Leiden 1899]. He published a revised edition of his "De laatste eeuwen van Israels volksbestaan" in 1915 (Leiden). Various scientific contributions from his pen appeared in the "Theologisch Tijdschrift". After Oort had resigned in 1907 he was succeeded by G. Wildkboer, before this Professor of Old Testament Literature at Groningen {"Het ontstaan van den Kanon des Ouden Verbonds", 4th ed., Gron. 1908; Engl.trahsl., London 1894; "De Letterkunde des Ouden Verbonds", 3ded., Gron. 1903; etc). A J. Wensinxk became his successor in 1912 ("Legends of Eastern Saihts", 2 vol., Leyden 1911—'13; some articles in "Der Islam", etc).
; From 1877 J. P. N. Land, Professor of Philosophy, for whom this branch of study had been combined with the Oriental languages at Amsterdam (1864—'72), sometimes gave private lectures in Syriac ("Anecdota Syriaca", 3 vol., Lugd. Bat. 1862—'70; "Hebreeuwsche Gramm.", Amst. 1869). After Land's death (1897) lectures in Aramaic were given by Prof. B. D. Eerdmans (of the theological faculty, from 1898) and, from 1902, by tbe private tutor Dr. J. Marquart, who also taught Ethiopian and Armenian. Since 1912 this Semitic branch is treated by Professor Wensinck.
The professors of the theological faculty, C. P. Tiele
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Dr. M. j. de Goeje, born Ang. 18, 1836; deceased May 17, 1909. Late Professor of Arabic in the Universitv of Levden.
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and Eerdmans, used to hold themselves willing to act as instructors lo those who wished to be instructed in AssyrianBabylonian. Since 1913 an extraordinary professorship haS been established for this language, wbich was filled by G. J. Thierry. If desired Professor Eerdmans also taught Mandaic.
Since 1902 Egyptian and Coptic have been represented at the Leyden University by Dr. P. A. A. Boeser, who, after being a private tutor, became a Lecturer in 1913 ("Beschrij-* ving van de Egyptische Verzameling in het Rijksmuseum van Oudheden te Leiden", 6 vol., Leiden 1905—'13).
A lectureship in Persian and Turkish was established in 1885 and filled by Dr. M. Th. Houtsma, who also succeeded Dr. O Snouck Hurgronje as a Lecturer on thelnstitutions of Islam, when the latter left for the East Indies in 1889. The place of Houtsma, who was appointed Professor at Utrecht in 1890, was taken by Dr. H. D. van Gelder.
At Utrecht the Chair of Oriental languages was occupied in 1810 by J. H. Pareau (besides some works on Hebrew Literature, "Commentatio de Amralkeisi Moallakah", Traj. ad Rh. 1828; etc.) until 1832; then, from 1831—1855, by J. C. Swijghuijsen Groenewoud ("Institutio ad Gramm. Aramaeam ducens", Traj. ad Rh., 1845 etc ); after him, from 1856—1868, by H. C. Millies, who also gave his attention to various languages of the East Indian Archipelago ("Recherches sur les monnaies des indigènes de 1'archipel Indien et de la Péninsule Malaie", La Haye, 1871). He was succeeded by P. de Jong, to whom several useful Arabic text-editions are due("AtTha'alibi, Lataifo '1-Ma'arif', Lugd. Bat. 1867; "Ad-Dhahabf, al-Moschtabih", ibid. 1881); he further prepared vol. III and part of vol. IV of De Goeje'S edition of al-Tabari's historical work. M. Th. Houtsma succeeded him in 1890, after having been Adjutor Interpretis Legati Warneriani and Lecturer in Persian and Turkish at Leyden. His teaching embraces Hebrew and Israelitish Antiquities, Aramaic and Arabic. Several important text-editions were published by him (including "Ibn Wadhih qui dicitur Al-Jacqubï Historiae", 2 vol., ibid.
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1883; "Recueil de Textes relatifs a 1'Histoire des Seljoucides", 4 vol., ibid. 1886—1902; he further contributed to the edition of the Leyden Catalogue of Oriental Mss. and to the Tabarï edition). Interésting contributions from his pen are amongst others: "Iets over de Israëlietische vastendagen" in "Verslagen en Meded. der Kon. Akad. van Wetenschappen", Afd. Letterkunde, 4do reeks, TI, 1898, and "Het skopelisme en het steenworpen te Mina", ibid., VI, 1904. At present the "Énzyclopaedie des Islam" (also in a French and English edition) is being published under his direetion.
The University of Groningen had G. Woltebs, for Oriental languages from 1813—1840; then, until 1845, Th. W. J. JuyNboll, after him J. J. P. Valeton ("IValibïi Syntagma dietorum brevium et acutorum", arab. et lat., Lugd. Bat. 1844). His successor in 1877 was F. J. van den Ham ("Disputatio pro Religione Mohammedanorum adv. Christianos", text. Arab , Lugd. Bat. 1890), whose place has been taken since 1913 by F. M. Th.Böhl ("Die Sprache der Amarnabriefe mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Kanaanismen", Leipzig, 1909; etc). Besides Hebrew (also Mishnaic), the latter teaches Babylonian-Assyrian.
In the University of Amsterdam the instruction in Oriental languages was entrusted in 1804 to J. Willmet ("Lex. linguae Arab. in Coranum, Haririum et Vitam Timuri", Roterod. 1784; a revised edition of the Bible in Malay, Haarlem, 1824). In 1832 T. Roobda was appointed extraordinary (in 1835 ordinary) professor, who, with the application of his ideas about the logical conceptions that form the basis of every language, devoted himself by preference to grammatical studies ("Grammatica Hebraea", 2 vol., Lugd Bat. 1831—3 ; "Grammatica Arabica", Lugd. Bat. 1835; revised ed., Leov 1858). Roobda acquired special merit in regard to the scientific study of the Javanese language. When in 1842 he went to Delft as Professor of this language, P. J. Veth succeeded him, who especially applied himself to the study of the geography and ethnograpby of the East Indies ("Liber as-Sojutii de nominibus relativis, inscr. Lubb al-Lubab", 2 vol., Lugd. Bat. 1840-1851).
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When he left the Amsterdam University, his place was taken in 1864 by J. P. N. Land, who was appointed at Leyden in 1872. His successor, H. Oort, followed him there in 1875. After J. G. de Hoop Scheffer had temporarily filled this place, the Chair for Hebrew and Israelitish Antiquities was occupiedbyJ C. Matthes from 1877 - 1906, whose scientific studies lie in the field of Hebrew literature and the history of the Israelitish religion ("Het boek Job vertaald en verklaard") [The Book of Job translated and elucidated], 2 vol, Utrecht 1865; various treatises in "Theol. Tijdschr." and "Teyler's Theol. Tijdschrift"). The same can be saidof his successor H. J. Elhorst ("De profetie van .Micha", 1891; "De profetie van Amos", 1900, etc.)
The Universities of Harderwyk and Franeker, having been abolished during the French period, revived as Athenaea. That at Harderwyk existed only for a very short time. The Franeker Athenaeum was maintained until 1843.
Lectures in Hebrew, Assyrian, and Arabic are given in the Free University (founded at Amsterdam in 1880) by Professor C. van Gelderen.
In the course of the nineteenth century a place was given in Netherlands University instruction to Javanese and Malay and also to other languages of the East Indian Archipelago.
In the Royal Academy of Delft (1842-1863), at the Government Institution for the instruction of Indian Languages, Geography, and Ethnography (1864—1877), at the Municipal Institution for the training of officers in the Indian Civil Service at Delft (1864—1902), and at a similar Municipal Institution at Leyden (1877 - 1891), these languages were taught with the exclusively practical object of training officers for the Civil Service of the Colonies.
After the reorganisation of University Education (1877) it became possible to obtain a doctorate in the Philology and Literature of the East Indian Archipelago, and Chairs for Javanese and Malav were established in the Levden Universitv.
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135
Since 1902 the Indian Civil Service students generally attend the lectures at this University.
As has been said before, the founder of tbe scientific study of Javanese was T. Roorda, Professor of this language in the Aeademy at Delft from 1842—1863 and from 1864—1874 at the Government Institution at Leyden. For a long time his " Javaansche Grammatica" [Javanese Grammar] (Amsterdam 1855; revised as "Beknopte Javaansche Grammatica", Amst. 1874) remained, in many revised editions, a book of study that was much in demand, notwithstanding defects resulting from the author's peculiar views concerning the theory of language, which one has to know in order to understand his book. He earned merit in regard to the lexicography of Javanese on account of the revision and edition of Gericke's '*Javaansch-Nederduitsch Woordenboek"' [Javanese-Netherlands Dictionary] (Amst. 1847), publishing a very extensive "Supplement" to this in collaboration with J. J. Meinsma (Amst. 1862). A new edition ("Jay.-Nederl. Woordenboek", Amst. 1871—741 he was unable to entirely complete. Besides these extensive works, he edited.several important Javanese texts.
In the Leyden University A. C. Vreede was appointed Professor of Javanese in 1877; he held this post till 1908. He finished the re vision of Roorda 's Dictionary and published amongst other works several new editions of the latter's Javanese Grammar (5lh edition, Amst. 1906). He also compiled a Madurese grammar and prepared a few text-editions in this language. Vreede was succeeded in 1909 by J. C. G. Jonker, wbo also made special studies of several other Indonesian languages, such as Bimanese, Rottinese, etc, which he made known by the publication of grammars, dictionaries and texts ("Rottineesche Spraakkunst", Leiden 1915 ; etc). He also lectures on the Macassar and Buginese languages.
The Malay Chair in the Leyden University was occupied in 1877 by J. "Pijnappel (till 1889), before that time Professor of this language successively at the Delft Aeademy (1846—64) and at the Government Institution at Leyden. He published a " Maleisch-Hollandsch Woordenboek" [MalayNetherlands Dictionary] (3rd ed. Haarlem, 1884), and



"Maleische Grammatica", Amst.-Haarlem, 1888. In 1890 the instruction of this language was entrusted to the Lecturer H. C. Klinkert. His principal work is his "Nieuw MaleischNederlandsch Woordenboek", Leiden 1893; 2nd ed., ib. 1901—02; 3rd ed. in preparation. He also prepared the editions of some Malay texts.
Klinkert was succeeded in 1904 by Professor Ch. A. van Ophuijsen, who lectures on the Malay language and literature, the comparative grammar of the languages of the East Indian Archipelago and the Menangkabaw and Batak languages. Besides numerous contributions concerning the grammar and lexicography of the Malay languages in tbe •Tijdschrift van het Bataviaasch Genootschap" [Periodical of the Batavia Society], he published a "Maleische Spraakkunst", Leiden 1910; "Maleisch Leesboek''[Malay Reader], ib. 1912; further several text-editions, including "Bataksche Teksten (Mandailingsch Dialect)", I, ib. 1914; etc.
G. J. Grashuis has been Lecturer of Sunda since 1876; different text-books for the study of this language came from his pen.
The instruction in the Geography and Ethnography of the Indian Archipelago was in 1877 entrusted to P. J. Veth, who since 1864 bad lectured on these subjects as a professor in the Government Institution at Leyden. His principal work was "Java, geographisch, ethnologisch, historisch", 3 vol., Haarlem, 1875—1884 (2d ed. revised by Snelleman and Niermeyer, ibid. 1896—1907). He was succeeded in 1885 by G. A. Wilken (f 1891), whose great erudition enriched knowledge in the field of Semitic and Indonesian ethnology ("De verspreide Geschriften van Prof. Dr. G. A. Wilken", verzameld door Mr. F. D. E. van Ossenbruggen, 1912). Wilken was succeeded by J. J. M. de Gboot. When the latter was appointed Professor of Chinese (1904), the Chair for the geography and ethnography of the Indian Archipelago was filled by A. W. Nieuwenhüis ("Quer durch Borneo", Leiden 1904—7; etc).
Amongst the Professors of the Delft Institute G. K. Niemann may be mentioned, who lectured on the Macassar and
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Buginese languages and on the geography and ethnography of the Êast Indian colonies. He wrote on the Alfoor language and published Malay and Buginese texts.
Scholars who much contributed toenriching the knowledge of the Indonesian languages were B. F. Matthes, who embodied his wide knowledge of the Macassar and Buginese languages in dictionaries, grammars and a number of texteditions; A. B. Cohen Stuaet, an eminent student of Javanese; H.N. van der Tuuk, a thorough linguist, especially in the field of Old Javanese, Balinese, and Batak, and a pioneer of comparative Indonesian philology; J. Brandes, known for his studies of comparative Indonesian philology and Javanese palaeography; and the Sanscritist J. H. Kern, who made fundamental studies of Old Javanese and of comparative Indonesian philology and still makes contributions on these subjects.
At the University of Amsterdam instruction in Malay is given by the private tutor Dr. A. A. Fokker. In the Polytechnic High School at Delft T. J. Bezemer lectures on Malay and Javanese, while C. Spat teaches Malay in the Commercial High School at Rotterdam.
After the reorganization of University education the Leyden University also got a chair for Chinese. This was filled in 1877 by G. Schlegel (f 1903), who wrote amongst other works: "Nederlandsch-Chineesch Woordenboek". Leiden 1884- 1891 ; and "Problèmes géographiques.Lespeuples étrangers chez les historiens chinois", Leyden, 1896 (from the periodical "T'oung Pao", 1892—95). After him the instruction of this language was entrusted to J. J. M. de Groot, ofwhose workswe may here mention: "The Religious System of China, etc", vol. I—VII, Leyden 1892—1910; and "The Religion of the Chinese", New York 1910. Following his departure for Berlin (1911) the chair for Chinese has not yet been filled »).
If this were not chiefly a survey of the University instruction in Oriental languages, we might mention several more scholars who have saccessfully applied themselves to the Semitic and Indonesian languages and literatures.
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NETHERLANDS LITERATURE
by H. J. A. RUYS.
f PHE first professor at Leyden, officially appointed in 1797, I was Matthijs Siegenbeek (1774—1854). The most important of his numerous historical and literary works were, we may note, his: "Verhandeling over de Nederduitsche spelling" [Treatise on Netherlands spelling] (1804>, his "Woordenboek voor de Nederduitsche Spelling" [Dictionary of Netherlands spelling] (1805), adopted as the official spelling by the Government of that time and used until 1883 (when the new spelling was adopted, which had been laid down by Dr. L. H. te Winkel and Dr. M. de Vries, in 1865) and his: "Geschiedenis der Leidsche Hoogeschool" [History of the Leiden University] 2 vols. (1829). From 1831 Joh. Matth. Schrant (1783-1866), at first Professor at Ghent, was his colleague, and took bis place when he retired in 1844. More famous than Schrant was his successor Matthijs de Vries (1820—1892), the founder of Netherlands philology and the first who studied Middle Netherlands in a scientific manner After having edited among other works Hooft's " Warenar' '(1843) and Boend ale's " Lekenspi eghel" (1844— '48), with the meritorious "Glossarium", he became professor at Groningen in 1849 and at Leyden in 1853. Besidesagreat many minor articles and studies on Middle Netherlands philology and critical text-editions, as,forinstance, Maerlant's "Spieghel Historiael" (1863—1879), he began in 1864 his principal work "Het Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal" [Dictionary of the Netherlands language], in which he was supported by the Government. Others who worked at this dictionary were: Dr L A. te Winkel (until 1868), with whom he also published a "Woordenlijst voor de spelling der Nederl. taal" [Vocabulary for the spelling of the Netherlands language] in 1866, wbich had several reprints: Dr. E.



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Verwijs (1869-1878), Dr. P. J. Cosijn (1871—1878); and further Dr. A. Kluyver (1883—1911), Dr. J. W. Muller (1888—1911), Dr. W L. de Vreese (1891-1895) and Dr. C. C. Uhlenbeck (1891—'92). The present editors are: Dr. A. Beets (since 1888), Dr. G J. Boekenoogen (since 1896), Dr. J. Heinsius (since 1905), Dr. J. A. N. Knuttel (since 1906) and Dr. R. van der Meulen (since 1911). The letters A, B, C, G, H, I, K, M, N, O are finished, and the editors are at work on D, J, L, P, R.
With the new University Education Act of 1877, Dr. P. J. Cosijn (1840—1899) was made Professor of Old Germanic, by the side of De Vries. He began his scientific Career with practical little grammar-books: "Vergelijkendespraakleer" (1866), "Nederlandscbe spraakkunst met oefeningen" (1867—1888), etc. Afterwards he passed on to Germanic Philology and wrote: "De Oud-Nederl. Psalmen" [the Old Netherlands Psalms] (1873), "Altwestsachsische Grammatik" (1888), "Aanteekeningen op de Béowulf'(1892) and "Over Angelsachsische Poëzie" (1899)!
With Kern, Verdam and Verwijs, he was among the first editors of the "Tijdschrift voor Nederl. Taal- en Letterkunde" [Periodical for the Netherlands Language and Literature]. Another chair in the Literary Faculty was filled by Johan Hendrik Caspar Kern (born in 1833). After having begun to work at the "Sanskrit-Wörterbuch" of O. Böhtlingk and R. Roth in 1857 and having become Professor at Benares in 1863, he came to Leyden in 1865, as Professor of Sanskrit, where he remained at work until 1903 with increasing fame. Among his principal pupils are Speyer, van der Vliet, Caland and Warren. A brief summary of hislabour may be given in the following manner: I. Indian and Iranian Philologies and Antiquities (e.g. "Cakuntala of het Herkenningsteeken" by Kalidasa, studies on and editions of VarahaMihira, etc). To this division also belongs his "Manual of Indian Buddhism", in Bühlër's "Grundriss" (1896) and his "Geschiedenis van het Buddhisme in Indië" (1882—'84). II. Malay-Polynesian Philology and Antiquities ("Kawi-studiën", "Wrtta-Sanéaya", "Ramayaua"). III. The science of the inscriptions in the Indian Archipelago and in Farther



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India. IV. Germanic languages, comparative philology ("Handleiding bij het Onderwijs der Nederlandsche Taal" [Manual of instruction in the Netherlands language], "Die Glossen in der Lex Salica", "Nomina geografica Neerlandica"). V. Accounts, biographies, reviews and reports.
Besides linguistics, Netherlands literature found scholars in W. J. A. Jonckbloet (1817—1885), who became a Professor first at Deventer and Groningen, and in 1877 at Leyden. Following some 17th century editions, he critically edited several Middle Netherlands texts: "Roman .van Walewein" (1846-'48), "Lancelot" (1846—'49), "Karei den Grooten" (1848), "Dietsche Doctrinale" (1842), "Beatrijs" (1859), someFrencbnovels: "Guillaume d'Orange" (1854), "Roman de la Charrette" (1850) and some more extensive works: "Geschiedenis der Middelned. dichtkunst" [History of Middle Netherlands poetry], 3 vols. (1851—'55) and "Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche letterkunde" [History of Netherlands Literature], 6 vols. (1868-1889, 4 editions). Jan ten Brink (1834-1901) was his successor. He wrote many literary sketches and studies ("Jan Starter en zijn wijf", "De Bredero's", "De Roman in brieven", etc ), some novels, and is still remembered for his manual: "Geschiedenisder Nederlandsche letterkunde" [History of Netherlands Litera. ture] (1895—'97).
When Kern retired he was succeeded by his pupil Jacob Samuel Speijer (1849—1913), who had been Professor at Amsterdam and Groningen. The latter first devoted himself to the study of Latin philology, and afterwards to that of Sanskrit; wrote a "Vedische und Sanskrit Syntax" in Bühler's "Grundriss", "De Indische theosophie en hare beteekenis voor ons" [Indian theosophy and its importance for us] (1910), published Indian texts and translations in the "Bibliotheca Buddhica" and the "Sacred Books", and popular works on Buddhism and Hinduism (1911).
The present Professors of the Leyden faculty of Netherlands philology and literature are: J. Verdam (since 1891), first Professor of Middle Netherlands and Netherlands philology in the University of Amsterdam; next to his many editions of Middle Netberlands texts. we mav draw attention



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to his "Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche Taal" [History of the Netherlands language] (1890—1912, 3 editions) and his "Middel-Nederlandsch Woordenboek" [Middle Netherlands dictionary], a continuation — at first in collaboration with Dr. E. Verwijs — of what Matth. de Vries started in 1864. The first number of this enórmous work appeared in 1882. At the present moment he is as far as V, and the dictionary will be finished within 8years. C. C. Uhlenbeck (since 1899), who teaches Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, Middle High German and the old languages and literatures of the Germanic peoples, and who has made his mark by his writings on the Baltic Slavonic, Basque, Gothic, Eskimo and Algonküi languages. G. Kalff (sincé 1902), Professor of Netherlands literature and its hislory, whose dissertation, "Het Lied in de Middeleeuwen" [The Ballad in the Middle Ages] (1889) and later work "Geschiedenis der Nederlandscbe Letterkunde in de XVI* eeuw" [History of Netherlands Literature in the 16,h century] (1889) and his principal work "Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche Letterkunde" [History of Netherlands Literature], in 7 vols. (1906—1912), deserve to be mentioned, besides editions of mediaeval and 17th century works. J. Ph. Vogel (since 1914), whose department is Sanskrit and its Literature and Indian Antiquities.
In the Utrecht Literary faculty we should first mention: Adam Simons (1770—1834), who became a Professor in 1816 and to a certain extent made himself known as a poet ("Lof der Welsprekendheid", 1809, "Ode aan mijnlandgenooten", 1824); Lod. Ger. Visscher (1797—1859), who was first appointed to a chair at Louvain and afterwards became extraordinary and in 1834 ordinary professor at Utrecht, where he published a "Handleiding" — which has now become antiquated —, "Bijdragen tot de Nederlandsche Letterkunde" [Contributions to Netherlands Literature] (1829,1835,1839) and also an edition of the "Ferguut (1838). Of greater fame was Willem Ger. Brill (1811—1896), who became a professor in 1859, and is known for his "Hollandsche Spraakleer" [Netherlands Grammar] (Etymology and Syntax), editions of Stoke's "Rvmkroniek" f1885). Riebeek's



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«Dagverhaal" (1884-1893), "Sinte Brandane" (1871) and Bogaers' "Taalkundige Opstellen" (1872). Further, he has given us a great many discourses and some works on the modern languages. After Brill had retired in 1882, he was succeeded by HenriErn. Moltzer (1836 -1895), who had been Professor at Groningen since 1865. His "Bibliotheek van Middel-Nederl. Letterkunde" [Library of Middle Netherlands Literature] is important; in this he himself published: "Floris ende Blancefleur" (1879), "Middel-Nederl. dramatische poëzie" [Middle Netherlands Dramatic Poetry] (1876) and "Levens en Legenden van Heiligen" [Livesand Legends of Saints] (1891). His successor was the above mentioned G. Kalff, whilst from 1882 linguistics were tftught by Johan Hendrik Gallée (1847 — 1908) and Sanskrit from 1891 by the classical Scholar Joa. van der Vliet (1847— 1902). GallJÉe's merits lie in the province of linguistics, though his "Akademie en Kerkeraad" (1877) and other works are also of some value. We may mention: " Aïtsachsische Grammatik" (1891), unfinished, "Gutiska" (1880— 1882), "Altsachsische Sprachdenkmaler" and in the field of folklore: "Woordenboek van het Geldersch-Overijsselsch dialect" [Dictionary of the dialects of Gelderland and Overijssel] (1896) and "Het Boerenhuis in Nederland" [The Farmhouse in the Netherlands 1907].
At the present time the Netherlands language and literature is taught at Utrecht by: J. W. Muller (since 1902), who has a thorough knowledge of the mediaeval "Reinaert" j J. J. A. A. Frantzen (since 1908) teaches comparative philology and the languages and literatures of the Germanic peöples and German; and W. Caland (since 1906) is teacher of Indo-Germanic philology and Sanskrit. The latter especially applies himself to the study of ritual, and has written: "Altindischer Ahnencult" (1893), "Altindischer Zauberritual" and edited some Sanskrit texts ("Baudhayana Srauta Sütra" and " Jaiminïya Samhïta").
At Groningen Barthold Hendrik Lulofs (1787—1849) became Professor of the Netherlands language and elocution in 1815. His poetical and very numerous philological works,



including a "Schets van een overzicht der Duitsche taal" [Sketch of a survey of the German language] (1819), "Nederlandsche Redekunst" [Netherlands Rhetoric] (1820) and "Handboek van den vroegsten bloei der Nederl. letterkunde" [Handbook of the earliest prosperity of Netherlands Literature] (1845) have no longer any value. One of his contemporaries was Gerrit J oan Meyer (1781—1848), who left Louvain in 1831 to go to Groningen. Though teaching Netherlands history, he most often applied himself to philology: annotated editions of "Het Leven van Jezus" ["The Life of Jesus"] (1835), "Oude Nederlandsche Spreuken en Spreekwoorden" [Old Netherlands proverbs and aphorisms] (1836) and some others. After he had been succeeded by W. J. A. Jonckbloet (1854 — 1865), to whom Groningen is much indebted, owing to his "Gedenkboek der Hoogeschool" [Annals of the University] (1864) and H. E. Moltzer (1865—1882), this chair was occupied by Willem Lodewijk van Helten, who taught the Netherlands language and literature and Middle Netherlands from 1882 till 1911. We may mention as his principal works: "Nederlandsche Spraakkunst" [Netherlands Grammar] (1875—'77), "Vondel's Taal" [Vondel's language] (1881), "Middelnederlandsche Versbouw" [Middle Netherlandsch rhythmical construction] (1884) and editions of "De Vos Reynaerde" (1887) and Anna Byns'"Refereinen" (1875—'SI). When he retired he was succeeded by Alb. Klüyver (since 1911), of great merits as a lexicographer, especially during the many years in which he worked at the Dictionary of the Netherlands language. B. Symons (from 1881) teaches thelndo-Germauic and Germanic languages, Gothic, Middle High German and the German language and literature. He wrote: "Untersuchüngen über die sogen. Völsunga Saga" (1876) and edited the "Kudrun" (1883) and "Die Lieder der Edda" (1888). There is also a chair for Sanskrit in this University, occupied first by J. S. Speyer, who was Professor from 1889 till 1903; and after him by Joh. Hendr. Kern (since 1901), who applies himself to the study of Anglo-Saxon, English, Sanskrit and the Slavónic languages. Wé may mention his "Klankleer en Uitgave der Limburgsche Sermoenen" (1891) and his
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revision of F. Kluge's "Vóórgeschiedenis van het Germaansch" (1893).
Amsterdam begins with Johannes Pieter van Capelle (1774—1829), who was a Professor from 1815 till 1828. He edited amongst other works: "De Nederlandsche Historie van P. C. Hooft" (1824) with notes. His successor was Nicolaas Godfried van Kampen (1776—1839). Thelatter's 'Beknopte Geschiedenis der letteren en wetenschappen in de Nederlanden" [A concise history of literature and sciences in the Netherlands] (1821 — 1826), "Magazijn voorwetenschappen, Kunsten en Letteren" [Magazine for Science, Literature and Art] (1822—1831), and "Hollandsen Magazijn" (1832), might be mentioned among numerous works of the same kind. After him came Hugo Beijerman (1791—1870), succeeded in 1865 by Thomas Theod. Hendr. Jorissen (1833— 1889). The latter is especially famous as a historian; we will here only mention his "Constantijn Huygens-Studiën" (1871). After the Netherlands language and literature had in 1877 also become a special branch of learning at Amsterdam, J. Verdam was appointed to the chair in 1878; and after he had gone to Leiden, Jan te Winkel became Professor of the Netherlands language and literature and those of the Old Germanic peoples. The knowledge of mediaeval conditions was much extended by his studies on "Maerlant's Werken beschouwd als spiegel der XIII6 eeuw" (1877), "Het kasteel in de 13e eeuw" [The castle in the 13th century] (1879), and by editions such as the "Moriaen" (1878), the "Torec" (1875) and "Esopet" (1881); more than one work on the Netherlands language, especially on the history of this language, was published by him (e. g. in Paul's "Grundriss der indogerm. Sprachwissenschaft"), while his literary labour culminated in his "Ontwikkelingsgang der Nederl. Letterkunde" [Development of Netherlands Literature] (1907-'12), of which at the present moment 3 vols. are finished. The Professor of Sanskrit, Comparative Philology and Old Germanic languages is Richard Constant Boer (since 1900), who succeeded J. S. Speyer (extraordinary professor of Sanskrit from 1888 till 1889). He especially applies himself



to the study of Norse and edited "Orvar-Odds Saga" (1888) and «Grettis Saga" (1900). In 1912 he began his series of "Altenglische Heldendichtung," including "De Béowulf." The Lecturer B. Faddegon took his place as teacher of Sanskrit in 1908.
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history by p. j. blok.
DISTINGUISHED scholars devoted themselves to the study of history, at first especially to that of ancient history, even in the earliest years of the Netherlands Universities. The philologists Jüstus Lipsius, Frans Oudendorp, and Jacob Perizonius at Leyden should be mentioned in this connection as pioneers, while in the beginning of the seventeenth century Ubbo Emmius of Groningen was famous for his critical research of mediaeval Frisian history, and at the end of the eighteenth Adriaan Kluit of Leyden as investigator of mediaeval Netherlands history. As a rule, during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries no place was given in our Universities to the teaching of modern national or universal history. Not until the beginning of the nineteenth was the teaching of modern history entrusted to M. Siegenbeek at Leyden and N. G. van Kampen in the Athenaeum of Amsterdam ; the latter is noted for hiscompilatory "Geschichte der Niederlande" in the earliest series of Heeren and Ukert and for many other historical writings from his prolific pen, all aiming at the spreading of the fame of the Netherlanders outside their own country.
The real study of historical science in the Netherlands Universities dates from the middle of the nineteenth century.
While R. Dozy represented universal history at Leyden from 1849 and in his "Histoired'Espagnesousla domination Arabe" (3d ed. Leyde, 1881) more or less followed French historiography, W. Brill at Utrecht (from 1859), and W. Heceer at Groningen worked in a manner that was compilatory or contemplative rather than critical, whereas Robert Frtjin, Professor of National History at Leyden from 1859, laid the foundations for critical study of history. He followed the method of Leopold Ranke and of his own, older friend Bakhuizen van den Brink, author of excellent historical essays and afterwards famous as the highly scientific State



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recorder. To the former Fruin refers gratefully as his master, though he had never been among his pupils, and admires him as the impartial historian, who witb sharp criticism penetrated into the deepest depths of historical life: he took bim for a model. His "Tien Jaren uit den tachtigjarigen oorlog" [Ten Years of the Eighty Years' War] — which has run through six editions since 1857 (lsted. Leyden, others the Hague)— is a model of historical research and historio-
Dr. R. Früin, born Nov. 14, 1823, deceased Jan. 29, 1899, Professor of History at the University of Leyden.
graphy; the numerous articles, he had contributed to various periodicals, collected only after his death in ten volumes of "Verspreide Geschriften" (Stray Essays) (the Hague, 1901 ff.), testify to his great critical gifts, his profound historical insight and his uncommon talents as a writer, which made him worthy of the name of the "Netherlands Ranke". His colleagues at Utrecht (at first Bbill, afterwards A. J.



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Wynne, best known as an author of text-books), Th. Jobissen at Amsterdam, whose talents of popularisation surpassed his critical gifts, and W. Hecker at Groningen, were unable to attain to the height on which he stood.
Though Fruin (1823-1899) had no desire to form a school, his influence on younger historians became decisive. P. L. Muller (1840—1904), first Professor at Groningen, and afterwards Dozy's successor in the Leyden University, devoted himself to universal history exclusively; in addition to his "G. F. von Waldeck und Wilhelm III von Oranien" (the Hague, 1873—1880), we have his great work: "Documents sur les relations du duc d'Anjou avec les Pays-Bas" (the Hague 1889 ff.) and his "Onze Gouden Eeuw" [Our Golden Age] (Leiden, 1896—1898); his "Geschiedenis van onzen tijd" [History of our own times] (Haarlem, 1902 ff.) is the only big book he wrote about universal history. He is prominent by accuracy of research and broad views. At Groningen he was succeeded in 1884 by Fruin's younger pupil P. J. Blok, who followed Fruin in his "Geschiedenis eener Holl.stad in de Middeleeuwen" [History of a Netherlands town in the Middle Ages] (The Hague, 1881 ; 2nd ed. 1910) and national historical life in his „Geschiedenis van het Nederlandsche Volk" [History of the Netherlands nation] (Groningen, Leyden, 1891 —1908) and who, having come to Leyden as Fruin's successor in 1894, applied himself to national history only. At Groningen, and since 1905 at Leyden, there worked Th. Bussemaker (f 1914), likewise one of Fruin's pupils and author of a „Geschiedenis van de afscheiding der Waalsche gewesten" [History of the secession of the Walloon provinces] (Haarlem, 1895—1896), which was rewarded with a gold medal by the Teyler Society of Haarlem. G W. Kernkamp, first at Amsterdam, then at Utrecht, though no pupil of Fruin, entirely followed the latter's method and devoted himself by preference to the history of the Baltic trade. At Amsterdam he was succeeded by H. Brugmans, who applied himself especially to commercial history, more particularly to that of Amsterdam. At Groningen J. Huizinga took the place of Bussemaker in 1906; he applied Fruin's method to the history of culture and came to Leyden in 1914. J. E.



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Hebbes was in 1902 entrusted with the teaching of colonial history at Leyden, which until then had been regarded as a subject of small historical importance, chiefly studied by amateurs. In 1913 the new commercial University at Rotterdam appointed N. W. Posthumus as Professor of History of Economics, who wrote a big book on the Leyden textile industry. In this manner Fruin's influence made itself feit in the Netherlands universities, where it still prevails. The new professor of history in Groningen, I. H. Gosses (1915), is also a disciple of Fruin and Blok, his favorite subject being mediaeval history.
The appointment of the German scholar O. Oppermann as Lecturer and afterwards as extraordinary Professor by the side of Kernkamp at Utrecht, resulted in close application to mediaeval history, with the teaching of which he was specially entrusted; he tried to apply to this study in our country the method so successful in Germany. Ancient history — formerly taught by philol ogists as a subject of little importance, — has been represented since the passing of the new, 1877, Act on University Education, by special professors in the various universities; at Amsterdam by the conscientious philologist and student of inscriptions U. Ph. Boissevain, at Leyden by the archaeologist A. E. Holwerda, at Groningen by the young German scholar O. Weber, at Utrecht by the versatile H. van Gelder, writer of a big "Algeraeene Geschiedenis" [Universal Historyl (Groningen, 1904) Seyeral other branches of historical science have been taught during later years by the lecturers M. Schoengen at Groningen and I. H. Gosses and de Boer at Amsterdam, and by te Lintum at Utrecht.
So we see that the modern study of history in The Netherlands owes a great deal to the development of historical science in Germany. Historical seminaries were established in this country also, though on much simpler linés. Of late, however, we observe a tendenoy to make these seminaries more like those in Germany, whereas until now they have borne more or less thecharacter of "privatissima" for those who wisbed to apply themselves specially to the study of history.



Local and provincial history is chiefly in the hands of the local and provincial recorders, among whom Mr. S. Muller of Utrecht is the first, whose "Schetsen uit de Middeleeuwen" (Sketches on mediaeval history) (Amst. 1900) have a more general character.
On the whole the study of history islimited to that of our own country in all directions; that of universal history is chiefly confined to the history of the föreign politics of the Republic. Great influence was exercised on this by the systematic research in foreign archives, begun by Blok with Government support in 1886 and continued by others, in the hope of discovering possible sources for Netherlands history. The Netherlands Historical Institution, established at Rome in 1904, is one of the important results of these investigations. ■
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