A GENERAL VIEW OF THE NETHERLANDS
NUMBER XXIV. THE WOMAN'S MOVEMENT by Dr. MIA BOISSEVAIN



THE SERIES OP PAMPHLETS GIVING TOGETHER A GENERAL VIEW OF THE NETHERLANDS HAS BEEN PÜBLISHED FOR THE P. P. I. E. 1915 UNDER DIRECHON OP THE COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT OF THE NETHERLANDS MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE AT THE HAGUE
THIS SERIES CONSISTS OF THE FOLLOWJNG NUMBERS
I. AGRICU LTURE. AND CATTLE
BREEDING.
II. NURSERIES.
Hl-Vil. INDUSTRIES. - P. DOYER. ÏIECHANICAL ENGINEER.
VIII. TRADE. • PROP. DR. H. BLINK.
IX. FISHERIES. - DR. P. G. VAN
TIENHOVEN.
X. CÜRRENCY AND BANKING. -
PAUL SABEL.
XI. HOLLAND ON THE SEAS. -
J. H. COHEN STUART. XH. PORTS AND WATERWAY8. V. J. P. DB BLOCQ VAN KUFPELER. CIVIL ENGINEER.
XIII. WHAT TO 8ËE IN THE NE¬
THERLANDS KROM AN ENGINEER's PO INT OP VIEW. - R. P. J TUTEIN NOLTHENIU8. CIVIL ENGINEER.
XIV. ENGINEERS AND CONTRAC-
TORS. - R. P. J. TUTEIN NOLTHENIUB. CTVIL ENGINEER.
XV. EDUCATION. - J. C. LIGTVOBT.
XVI. SCIENCE.
1 UNIVERSITIES. - DR. P. C. MOL-
HUY8EN.
2 THEOLÜGICAL DJSTRDCTION.
PBOF. DB. L. KNAPPERT. 8 A REVIEW OP THE LAW. - DR. J.
VAN KDYK. 4 MEDICAL SCIENCE. - PROF. DR.
B. C. VAN LEERSUM. 6 FACÜLTY OF MATHEMATICS AND
NATURAL SCIENCE. - DR. J. A.
VOLLQRAFF.
• MATHEMATICS. - PROF. DR. J.
CARDINAAL. 1 PHYSICB - DR. J. A. VOLI.QRAFF.
8 ASTRONOMY. - PROF. DB. W. DE
BITTER.
9 MINERALOGY, GEOLOGY AND
RELATED BRANCHES OF 8CD2NCE. - PROF. J. VAN BAREN.
10 BOTANY. - DR. TH. VALETON.
11 ZOOLOGY. - DR. A. 8CHIEBBEEK.
12 CHEMISTRY.-DR.W. P. JORI3SEN.
13 CLASSIC AL LITERATURE. - DR. P.
C. MOLHUY8EN.
14 ORIENTAL LITERATURE. - C. VAN
ARENDONK. 16 NETHERLANDS LITERATURE. -
DR. H. J. A. RUYS. 16 HISTORY. - PROF. DR. P. J. BLOE.
XVII. MENTAL, RELIGIOUS AND
SOCIAL FORCBS. - PROP. DR. H. BAVINCK.
XVIII. LITERATURE. - JOH. DE
MEESTER.
XIX. MUSIC. - S. VAN MILLIGEN.
XX. FINE ARTS. - C. VETH.
XXI. ARCHITECT URE. A. W.
WEISSMAN. ARCHITECT. XXn. PUBLIC HEALTH. - DR. M. W. PIJNAPPEL.
XXIII. SPORT. - JONKHEER JAN
FEITH.
XXIV. THE WOMAN'S MOVEMENT. -
DR. MIA BOISSEVAIN.
XXV. THE PEACE MOVEMENT. -
JONKHEER DR. B. DE JONG VAN BEEK EN DONK.



THE WOMAN'S MOVEMENT IN THE
NETHERLANDS. y



H. M. the Qaeeu visiting the Exhibition "Woman 1813—1918," at Amsterdam.



THE WOMAN'S MOVEMENT IN THE NETHERLANDS.
Number of inhabitants (1909) 5,868,176
„ „ women 2,959,050
i» ii mwi 2,899,126
1\HE Netherlands is a small country with a strong individuality of its own, a unity just as much as any <great nation in the world.
Ji' How is the woman's movement getting on in that country ? Is it backward as in Germany, partly militant as in England, or victorious as in the Scandinavian countries? Let me answer you at once by saying it is neither backward, nor militant, nor yet victorious; it is simply what anyone with a knowledge of the national character would expect it to be, that is thorough, eamest, slow-going but steadfast.
In 1525 one of our great Netherlanders, Erasmus of Rotterdam, "the journalist of Europe for that time," gave in one of his four thousand "Adagia," which were spread over the whole of the civilized world, a character sketch of the Netherlanders which makes the modern Dutchman, as you call him now-a-days, smile, because he acknowledges the truth of it. Erasmus wrote this in consequence of a discourteous expression about our forefathers, the old Batavians, in an epigram of the old and licentious Roman author "Martialis". This Roman poet spoke of "Batavian ears", meaning «verything uncivilized and dull. Nearly 1,500 years later JCrasmus still fires up and writes:
"Granted that there are now, as formerly, Batavian ears in existence, Martial's reproach of rusticity does not reflect discredit on Netherlanders — for the Spartans and Bomans were of old also rustic of marmer — but honour. It is a virtue not to be charmed by the double-meaning witticisms of certain eplgrammatists.
3



In all other respects the Netherlanders are so little rougb and nnpolished that, If one may jndge from their domestic life, no other people manifests a greater inclination for kindliness and urbanity or Iess disposition for violence or cruelty. They "wear theirhearts on their sleeves" — neither fawn nor dissemble, and have not a vice which can be termed "national" — onless indeed yon were to apply the term to their love of good living. Noother country in proportion to its superficial area has so large a number of towns — towns which, though perhaps not distinguished for any great size, are wonderfully well managed.
Merchants who have travelled over the larger half of the world, acknowledge that in the Netherlands only did they find honsehold belongings kept so neat and tidy.
Nowhere else will you find a larger number of people of good average information. If but a minority of them can lay claim toanything finer — for instance to the culture ot theancients — that may be ascribed to their love of an easy-going life and to their attaching a higher value to much virtue than to much cleverness.
For numerous examples can be adduced to prove that they are not wanting in genius".
It must be borne in mind that this was written beforeRembrandt, Grotius, Vondel and the brilliant line of great men of the 17"' century had appeared. Erasmus saw only the grey material, out of which were struck, now and thenr it is true, a spark or two, but as yet no fire.
So much the more noteworthy is it that he, who had travelled in so many countries and found himself in more than one of them as much at home as in his own, should say r "Nowhere else will you find so many people of good average information". These words characterise our people still men and women alike try to shape out for themselves their conceptions of life. The pronounced individualism which results from this, causes in general a certain attitude to be assumed with regard to the main problems of the day. In that complicated mosaic of life-conceptions it is, notwithstanding the smallness of the land, difficult for any movement whatever to win its way.
The woman's movement in the Netherlands, however,. was fortunate enough, from its very inception, to strikeroot in two totally different fields, viz. in that of the orthodox religious, and that of the freethinking sections of the public. 4



It was really the Christian philanthropists who led the way. This group, in connection with which the names of the ■Countess van Hogendorp and Mevrouw Groen van Prinsterer deserve special mention, owed much to theinspiring personality of two English women — Elizabeth Pry and Josephine Butler.
By them the cause of "fallen girls" was vigorously
The Countess van Hogendobp— van Hogendorp.
espoused. In the year 1847 the famous Heldring Homes were founded at Zetten — an extensive institution for the victims of prostitution and its prevention. With this work — really organised by men — a few women, with the devotion of a life-time, associated themselves. In our days it is hardly possible to realise what courage was demanded of a woman
5



to undertake work of sueh a kind. And resulting from the preventive part of the work there began to be feit the need of an extended labour sphere and of an improved technical education for women. In 1865, the first industrial school for girls was founded, while in 1871—72 were established the two societies "Arbeid Adelt" (Labour ennobled) and "Tesselschade", which had for their object the
Mrs Gtrobn van Prinstkrkr— Thomas a Thdkssink van dbb'Hoop.
providing of work for the vast number of indigent females whose only chance of employment up to then was as housekeeper or nurse-governess. This these societies supplemented by making a first attempt at technical education.
In 1882 a Netherlands branch of the "Union Internationale des Amies de la jeune fille" was formed, and in 6



1884 "The League for elevating the moral consciousness" (Ned. Vrouwenbond tot verhooging van het zedelijk bewustzijn) came into being.
This league was for years exposed to public ridicule. Since affiliated to the "National Committee for Combating the Traffic in Women" (het nationaal comité tot Bestrijding van den Handel in vrouwen) it has seen its sphere of activity widen more and more and is doing useful work, more especially in connection with "stationsupervision." (See under Public Morality).
In the following years various other societies for iinproving the social, legal, and political status of woman came into existence.
First of all — in 1889 — the "Free Women's Society" (Vrije Vrouwenvereeniging) was organised. This society consisted of ultra-radical elements, and its members were very soon, by way of ridicule, termed "free women". But with this nick-name, as with that of "the Beggars" (gueux) of our Eighty Years' war heroes, it will end by becoming a title of honour. These women expressed themselves very strongly on the subjection of the present-day woman and demanded for her the^same rights as the man enjoyed. They are still considered "ultra," but much that 20yearsago was called "ultra" is now no longer so. In addressing any other woman, whether married or single, they invariably make use of the term "Mistress". In this same year some working-women also organised themselves into a society — "the Working-women's Association" (de werklieden-vrouwen vereeniging).
In 1894, on the initiative of the Free Woman's Society, our Woman Suffrage Society was established. In 1895 came into existence the active Woman Leagues of Groningen and Rotterdam, and in 1898 a Society for the advancement of the social and legal status of women (Ver. ter Verbetering van den maatschappelijken en rechts-toestand der vrouw). Itwas the Groningen Women League which gave the first push to the so justly praised Exhibition of Woman's Labour held in the coronation year (1898) of Queen Wilhelmina at The Hague.
7



That exhibition may be regarded as the first mile-stone in the Netherlands Woman's movement. As an immediate outcome of this exhibition there sprang into life the "National Society for Woman's Labour" which, with its «Bureau for Woman's Labour," aims at furthering the extension of woman's sphere of work in the Netherlands and her colonies. As such it has always been foremost in the battle in all~
Mrs W. Dkuckee, Pioneer in the Netherlands woman's movement and President of the "Free Women's Society."
questionsconcerningthespecialprotectionoffemaleworkers. It was at this exhibition that part of a big wall was left entirely bare and underneath it waswritten: "This is all the female mspection we have!" A year later three female labour



inspectors were appointed. In the year of that exhibition a very readable novel was published called "Hilda van Zuylenburg" by Mrs. Cecile de Jong van Beek en Donk, that vastly influenced the intellectual masses in favour of wöman's study. It is translated into English and certainly deserves to be read by those who take an interest in women's questions.
Miss Maeib Junghjs, who took a very active part in the Woman's Labonr Exhibition, 1898.
How universal was the infiuence exercised by the exhibition on women and the public generally, cannot be told in few words. It is enough to say that the Woman's movement had entered upon a new era, in which its strivings were more generally recognised and appreciated,
9



From henceforth the movement ran on broader lines, and it was also more generally understood that the aspirations of women ought to be concentrated on their political freedom.
The Woman Suffrage Society then began to increase in importance. The great out-blossoming of this society, however, did not begin to show itself until the International Congress for Woman Suffrage, held in 190^ at Amsterdam. It is here perhaps the proper place to point out how much the woman's movement in this country is associated with internationalism and how greatly the Netherlands is indebted to the infiuence of American women. The International Suffrage movement set on foot by American women, found the Netherlands one of the first countries to associate itself with. In the year 1904 seven countries (of which one was the Netherlands) joined the International Woman Suffrage Alliance. At the present moment there are no less than 26 countries associated with it.
In 1898, at the Woman's Labour Exhibition, the foundations were laid by Mrs. Wright Sewall (of the United States) of a Netherlands branch of the National Council of Women. Twenty-four societies immediately joined. The Council proves that great unanimity of purpose exists amongst the women of all nations. It makes women take cognizance of what is going on in their domain in other countries, yet every country, whilst keeping in view its own nationality and constitution and the form of opposition to be overcome, must try to attain its object in its own way.
Comparison with other countries has shown us that Netherlands women ought to be grateful for having so easily obtained so much without having to fight for it — amongst other things:
1. The throwing-open of our higher and secondary education to women.
2. Unrestricted right for women to practise as lawyers and doctors of medicine (Think of Germany!).
3. Unrestricted right to form themselves into societies (Think of Austria!).
4. Assured certainty of access to Ministers of State (Think of the suffragettes in England!).
10



.International Conncil of Women in The Netherlands, with the President, the Marchioness of Aberdeen, and Mrs. May Weiqht Skwall from the U.S.A. Between those two is Mrs. Van Bikma-Hijmans, President of the Netherlands Council of Women.



5. Membership of women in ad visory State Oommissions and on school committees.
6. The appointment of female doctors for schools; the employment of women as labour and factory inspectors.
On other points, however, our backwardness corupared with other countries is but too apparent, as for instance in the field of:
1. Matrimonial legislation — ours being about the worst in Europe.
2. Education of girls — in which we are only too often behind other countries.
We rarely, however, come across any set opposition —
• Johanna W. A. Nabkh, a well-known author and feminist.
Eeasmus' " well-informed Netherlanders" accepting the Woman's Movement with some amount of good nature.
The last ten years, then, have been marked by a steady deepening and broadening-out of the whole Woman's Movement.
In 1905 the right of guardianship of children other than her own was granted to the women of the Netherlands.
In 1907 it was enacted by the "Labour Contract Act", which allows a married woman to enter into a labour contract, that she might retain her wages on the express 12



condition "that she shall apply them to the use of her family". Before that date the woman' who married without a marriage settlement had no right to the product of her own labour. Thus slowly but surely there is an improvement in our legislation.
In the world of action, too, women are coming more and moré to the fore — as officials, as members of important boards, etc. For instance, there are now 5 municipal female doctors of medicine (officers of public health), 2 police assistants (Rotterdam and The Hague), 7 labour inspectors, a large number of female members of school committees and boards of guardians; they can now be income-tax commissioners, members of the poor law board, and of the Chambers of Labour; they can be on the committee of supervision for the administration of the Housing Act, on the committee for National Health, and on the Annuity committee for Sickness and Old Age Insurance.
With regard to this last—an Old Age and Sickness Act came into operation in 1913, which, however, in several respects does not satisfy women. For instance, in order to be able to draw this Old Age or Sickness annuity, a person must previously have worked^ certain number of years as a wageearner — a stipulation which in many cases bears unfairly on the woman, who at the required age is no longer in actual employment.
To American ears it will no doubt sound incomprehensible that the majority of the Synod of the Netherlands Protestant Church is as yet disinclined to admit women as clergymen. The Mennonite sect is the only religious body that so far has appointed a woman minister, as it did in 1911. But in most of the other professions women are gradually finding a place.
With the object of once more setting a great and effective propaganda afloat, and of vigorously roüsing up anew the interest of women in all these qüestions, the women of the Netherlands organised in 1913, the centenary of the Netherlands' recovery of her indépendenceafter Napoleon's brief rule, a second national Exhibition called "Woman 1813—1913."
13



Its intention was to compare the social, political, and intellectual status of women in 1813 with that of the women of 1913, but it also showed the vast progress made in the fifteen years' interval between this and the first Women's exhibition of 1898. It may perhaps interest the women of America to learn that neither of these two exhibitions depended for its success in the slightest degree on trade advertisements, but that each was run by women as a purely
The Exhibition "Woman 1813-1913", at Amsterdam.
private enterprise, and with the sole object ofdemonstrating the possibilities of woman's work and influence.
Queen Wilhklmina accentuated the interest she had taken in the Exhibition by appointing two ladies to supply her at regular intervals with information on its proceedings, and also on the Woman's movement generallv.
Immediately on the outbreak of the calamitous European war, which still rages, our Queen initiated the organisation of a General and National Reliëf Comniittee on fi 14



large scale, with representatives of the whole nation — women, who were represented by the National Council of Women, not being forgotten on this occasion.
It is perhaps unnecessary to point out that women, too, are co-operating in large numbers in the battle against intoxicants, in the peace movement, and playing a prominent part in societies of different kinds.
All the societies of which mention has been made in the preceding lines, are summarised am ong the Socialists as " The Bourgeois Woman's Movement". They set up against it the so called "Proletariat Woman's Movement". For a long time it was contended on the part of the Socialists that a separate proletariat women's movement was superfluous, as Socialism was going to give the women all they wanted, but of late years the women of that party have come to hold different views. They are now busily organising women's clubs all over the country; the total number of members in 1913 only just reached 1,000. Thus the Socialist party is in most cases opposed to the "Bourgeois Woman's Movement". The People's Petition of 1913, however, initiated by "The Association for Woman Suffrage", by which it was enunciated that under the expreszon "Uniyersal Suffrage" the right of all men and women to vote was to be understood, and, as a natural consequence, the constitutional equality of man and woman insisted upon — is supported by them. They have in their ranks a very talented poetess, Mevrouw Henriette Roland Holst, whose verses are considered as the best Socialist literature.
This brief survey of the Netherlands woman's movement must not end without a word or two about the East Indian Colonies. There, too, modern ideas are gradually beginning to spread among the native women, and this is voiced in the first place by a demand for more instruction. We give here a portrait of the talented and noble pioneer in the emancipation of Javanese women, the Raden Adjeng Kartini. Kartini, as she is generally called, worked for the "one wife" marriage, an idea that is beginning to gain ground more and more Alas, some few years ago — in 1904 — she died at the early age of twenty-five; but a collection of letters,
15



published after her death under the title of "Through Darkness to Light," will preserve for us her valuable reflections and elevated ideas.
About a year and a half ago, expression was given, at a meeting of the Indian Association at The Hague, by the president, the Rajah Mas Notosoeroto, on the occasion of a discussion on the views of the late Raden Adjenö Kartini, to the wish, shared in by all the members, to cooperate in her efförts for thé elevation of the woman. There are now many in India who cherish the same thoughts. The result was that
Miss Adjrng Kartini, a pioneer in East India.
the education of girls haa of late years been greatly extended in Java. At Semarang and Batavia, for instance, the first. so-called Kartini schools have been opened, while at ,Batavia a coursè of midwifery lessons hasbeen instituted. 16



FEMALE LABOUR*).
The Netherlands oecupies a peculiar position auiong the countries that lie around her. Whereas in England and Germany professional (female) labour is rising (and, relatively speaking, most of all in the realm of "manufactures") the number of women engaged in domestic employments is diminishing and at the same time the labour of the married woman is almost uniformly increasing, not one of these facts can be asserted of the Netherlands. It is true that here, too, in the last 60 years striking changes have taken place in female labour, but what manifests itself in England and Germany as an increase, is in the Netherlands merely a shifting of labour from one part of the field to another. This phenomenon is connected with the general economical development of the Netherlands. We may mention amongst other points the great preponderance of agriculture, and the large number of small towns scattered over the whole country, owing to which the main life of the nation is not concentrated in large centres: hence the less "greatcapital" character of Netherlands manufactures. Whereas in Germany from 1882 to 1907 the number of women exercising callings*rose from 18.5% to 24.6 %, we find "in the Netherlands the folio wing figures:
Women exercising callings in 1849 21 %
„ „ 1869 18 „
„ „ „ „ 1889 15.4 „
„ „ „ „ 1899 16.8 „
„ „ „ „ 1909 18 3 „
It is generally supposed that in the last few years there has been an enormous increase in the numbers of women so employed. This is the case to some extent, but by no means to the extent generally supposed. The question, however, to which women this increase in the exercise of callings applies, is an important one. And then we notice in the course of the last half century a gradual .decline of the labour of the
*) The following has been mainly taken from "The Problem of female professional labour in Holland", by Dr. Clara Wichmann, and "Woman in Holland a hnndred years ago and now," by Dr. van der Bergh van Eysinga and Dr. Clara Wicbmann.
17



Baroness Bertha von Suttner on her visit to the Woman's Exhibition in Amsterdam in 1918



married woman and a marked increase in the number of xmmarried women exercising callings.
The decliné in the labour of the married women is a phenomenon peculiar to the Netherlands. In Germany the exact opposite is the case, as also in England.
In 1889 the percentage of married female workers as against unmarried was 25.1 %, in 1899, 22.5 %, and in 1909 23.3 % *).
The problem of the labour of the married women is one of the crucial points in the whole woman labour question.
The actual position of this labour is at the present moment this. In agriculture married women form a large percentage of the female workers: in the retaü trade married women, and more especially widows, are numerously represented: in factories they are comparatively scarce, for while, taken generally, married women workers form a percentage of 23.3 % of all women workers, the percentage of married women employed in factory labour is only 9.62 %, and the whole number of married women so employed. is only 5,470. In home labour they are very numerous, and especially in its lowest branches and those demanding the least technical education, such as picking peas, shelling shrimps, etc. Very extensive too is the labour of the married woman as charwoman, as laundress, and as general odd-job worker, in which cases they need not leave their families every day Finally there are a few married women in higher callings, as teachers, doctors, actresses, etc
With reference to the work of the married women there exist in our country two main attitudes — one which would hamper and impede, if necessary by legal prohibition, and among the supporters of this view are found not only staunch conservatives, but also genuine humanitarians; the other, the direct opposite, which would further the socialising of the family life, to free women for exercising callings which alone can make them economically independent of man.
*) This seeming increase is dne to the fact that a certain kind of agricultnral labonr formerly not connted has been added to the 1909 fignres.
19



Lastly there is a third attitude adopted which strives more after a middle way, based on practical life, and which has in its programme, amongst other things, a half-day system for married women that is at variance with the system which considers only those who can give the whole day and all their energies.
Still fiercer rages the strife about the subject of separate protection for women's labour: the strife on the question
wnether restnctions which shorten the woman's working-day or protect her labour in some other way, without at the same time giving this protection to men as well, should be condemned and opposed as a measure which would render the women's position on the labour market more difficult. The first labour law to take the woman under special protection dates from 1889, and this was extended in 1911. With
Mrs. M. Rutgers-Hoitsbma, a iegal reglllation of the working a well-known feminist. , r ° , ,, , ,
nours ol adult men, on the other
hand, no beginning has yet been made. Repeated protests
have been signed against one and the other on the woman's
side.
WOMEN STÜDENTS.
In contrast with this slight increase in woman's labour generally it is certainly very peculiar that the movement for university education and the throwing open of the higher professions to women has, with the exception of the United. States of America and Australia, hardly in any country made so much progress as in the Netherlands.
In 1912, 846 women — 14 per cent. of the whole body of students — were enrolled at the five universities of the Netherlands. a number disproportionally large compared, for example, with the 43,844 female factory workers. 20



education.
In the 2nd half of the 18th century there were a few Netherlands wornen writers who openly stimulated women to!make themselves conversant with the works of Rousseau artd other authors, on the ground that these could be adapted for the instruction of little girls. It was two famous novelists, Elizabeth Wolfe and Agatha Deken, who constantly treated of education in their writings and advocated the cause of an improved education for young girls. Their master-works, "Willem Levend", and "Sara Burgerhart" — which deserve to be translated into English—give a typical insightinto Netherlands life and its intellectual tendencies at the end of the 18"' century. These women are representative of an essentially healthy part of our nation at the very time when, judgihg from outward circumstances, there was a good deal of slackness.
The idea of technical education had been recognised as early as 1808 by the founding of the Public Work and Practice School (Openbare werk- en leerschool) at Amsterdam — a school which is still in existence, and is at the present moment one of the most thorough training-schools for-maidservants. For a long time it continued to be the only one.
In 1865, thanks to the efforts of Mevrouw Storm van der Chijs, the first technical school for young persons of the female sex was founded The Act of Parliament (1863) on Secondary Education contained a provision that secondary schools for girls might be founded by municipal authorities, provinces or private individuals, and be subsidised by the State.The first secondary school (Hoogere Burger School) for girls was founded in 1867 at Haarlem, and gave occasion fora furious paper warfare. The word "feminism" was as yet unknown at the time — the bugbear was then called "emancipation". In December of the year 1870 a motion for the founding of a secondary school for girls at Amsterdam was rejécted by the City Council, the voting being 34 against and 10 for. A short time afterwards, however, it was carried.
In the struggle in the years 1865—'70 women took an active part. The movement, it is true, was not organised.
21



Elisabf.th Wolff and Agatha Dkken.



Several women, on their own initiative, made their views public, but did so under cover of pseudonyms. In the last 45 years the secondary school has not been altered to any great extent in character — it had to be one for general development, having no other object in view than the girls' vocation to lead a refined life, as the man s consort — and it is still that!
A preference began to be gradually shown for boy's secondary schools, which really do lead up to professions. To these schools admission was obtained without any difficulty. In 1871—'72 girls for the first time entered boys' secondary schools, and from that date onwards the number of girls has been steadily on the increase. Thus in 1909 there were only 1,696 pupils at girls' secondary schools, while at boys'secondary schools there were 2,347 girl pupils, and another 500 girls at the grammar-school (gymnasium) — a convincing proof that a great need exists for technical education in the case of girls as well as of boys. There are now in the Netherlands 13 secondary schools for girls, which, with a single exception, are under the direction of women, although both male and female teachers are employed in them.
Technical schools for girls developed more vigprously than did secondary schools for girls. After the founding of Technical schools at Amsterdam in 1865, schools of a similar kind. appeared successively in other adjoining towns, followed subsequently by schools for household management ; women's labour schools; training colleges for female teachers; training-schools for maid-servants; ditto for midwives; and class-teaching for nurses, fröbel-teachers, nursery-governesses, etc. An energetic movement has been set on foot among the nurses to secure legal regulations for their education and examinations, which will put an end to the arbitrary granting of diplomas by institutions of a very different kind.
A School for Social Work has for some 15 years been in existence at Amsterdam, which, though open to both sexes, is mainly attended by girls. This school has a very wide curriculum, covering practically all branches of social work. But, inasmuch as it does not directly lead to definite
23



professions or official appointménts, it does not enjoy the popularity it deserves, and is principally attended by pupils who can afford to study two or three years without the certain prospect of afterwards obtaining a salaried position.
Primary education, regulated by the Act of 1857, is partly free and is for both sexes (co-education). Since 1900 compulsory education has been in force.
prejudicially affects the woman teacher's prestige, but has also this result, that the girl is in her last school years entirely withdrawn from womanly infiuence.
Another burning question is that of the married woman teacher. Up to the present, when a female teacher has married, she has been instantly requested by the authorities to resign. All these disputed points keep pens busy.
One of the walL paintihgs in the entrance hall of the Women's Exhibition at Am) terdam in 1918, illustrating Woman in relation to war, by Miss Willy Drupsteen.
The grievances of women still awaiting anielioration, are - too low salaries of female teachers, and the assignment to male' teachers only of the higher classes, which not merely
24
In the East Indian Colonies the girls have also been going in steadily increasing numbers to the schools for native boys, notwithstanding the strong prejudice prevalent in
25
v



native circles against attendance at mixed schools. And where circumstances permitted, they have also attended mixed schools and girls' schools for the European children. The hundreds gradually increased to- thousands, and this increase has, in the last few years, been well sustained and steady. In 1908 the number of girla at Government native schools in Java and Madura was 2,943; in 1909, 3,935; in 1910. 5,656; in 1911, 6,920; in 1912, 8,031. In 1912 the number of girls attending private schools was 5,745. Moreover, about 6,000 girls are attending the village schools founded since 1907. The total is thus almost 20,000. We must not, however, here lose sight of the fact that the prejudice just mentioned (against mixed classes) has this effect, that girls leave school at a very early age, in most cases when they are less than 12 years old.
On the other islands the number of girls attending schools rose in 1911 to 32,280. Instruction by Europeans is enjoyed by sonie hundreds of non-European girls.
public mobality *).
In regard to this question public opinion has of late been entirely reversed, and of this reversal the law affords evidence. In the year 1813 the spirit of Napoleon was still a working force in the Netherlands. Though all the regulations in this direction were notactually introduced by him, yet on each one of them he imprinted his seal by putting them into operation and also by forbidding inquiry into the paternity of illegitimate children. How widespread the effect of all this really was had not been properly realized until the year 1830, when a book was published, the work of Pabknt Düchatklkt, a French physician, who from the strongest convictions defended the measures adopted, mainly from the standpoint of health. This work found readers, not merely in France but in all civilized countries, and in the Netherlands its influence was widely feit. Nor was it merely
*) Taken from ''Getuigen en Bedden", by Miss I. Esskr, written for the exhibition "Woman 1818—1913".
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the medical world that arrayed itself on its side; military and civil authorities did the same, with the result that from 1838 to 1878 regulations were in quick succession adopted in various towns. Good, in every respect, was anticipated from medical supervision, but it was just here that the grave injustice done to the woman was lost sight of. It was again the Rev. O. G Heldring, who had already done such splendid reclamation work in the institution called "Steenbeek" at Zetten, who now in 1852 raised his voice against the continuation of this grave injustice. In the long struggle that followed Mrs. Jos. Butler proved a most influential factor. Despite the scorn and ridicule levelled at her, she did not fail to carry the battle she had begun in England to the continent. It was by her initiative that the first congress was held at
Geneva in 1877, the first occasion when matters of this nature found public platform expression. At this congress the Netherlands was represented
Dr. Pierson, who
at the reopening of "Steenbeek", which had been destroyed by fire, brought the flagof battle back to his own country. Of no less importance was the congress held in 1883 at
The Hague, where Mrs. Butler by her inspiring address roused our women to take a similar part in the struggle. Mevr. Douair. Klerk van Hogendohp responded to that appeal by establishiug, with the help of a few other ladies, the Netherlands Women's League for the Defence of their Moral Consciousness (Nederlandsche Vrouwenbond tot Verhooging van het Zedelijk Bewustzijn).
From 1878 to 1910, when in Zutphen the last regulation was revoked, there was a fierce strife over this
27
Mis. Klkkk van Hogendorp.



question; but it was stilt more bitter from '78—'80, when a fierce controversy raged having for its main object the disarming of medical opposition. The movement continued to steadily gain adherents to its cause, as was evidenced by the rise of various associations, which, though formed directly with other objects for their goal, were yet one in the desire to combat the injustice done to women.
Mrs Wynaendts Francken—Dyserink, Mrs. Verslui.is—Poelman, Nellïe van Kol, Titia van dee Tutje and others, either by actual speech or writing took active part in this work.
Though women's voices had continually been raisëd in the country, it was not until 1889, when through the efforts of the Netherlands Association for the Prevention of Prostitution (Ned. Ver. tegen de Prostitutie) in conjunction with the Netherlands Women's League (Ned. Vrouwenbond) the National Congress was held at Amsterdam, that the feelings of the public were properly to be wakened up. The principle that there should be one morality for both sexes is now at least recognised by our legislation
It had taken some thirty years to bring public opinion round. Up to then public bye-laws had been passed by
which the regulaüons were abolished and houses of ill fame forbidden, but now a national movement was set on foot to get them forbidden by statutelaw, and through the efforts of the "Netherlands Association for the Prevention of Prostitution" (Ned. Ver. tegen de Prostitutie) in conjunction with the "Netherlands Women's League" (Ned. Vrouwenbond) and the "Netherlands Midnight Mission" (Ned. Midder-
Mrs.VBRSLDTs-PoKi.MiN. nachtzending) great public meetings were convoked and petitions secured all over the country. Three tim.es — by Mr. Cort van der Linden in 1900, by Mr. Loeff in 1904, and by Mr. Nelissen in 1909 — Bills were introduced for the revision of the Criminal Law. The last Bill, amended in Sepf, 1910, by 28



Mr. PvEGOüt, had reference exclusively to the combating of immorality. This Bill was passed by the Second Chamber on the 16lh of March, 1911, by a majority of 27, and by the First Chamber on the 17th of May, 1911, without going to a division. The keeping of houses of ill-fame was also prohibited in the Second Chamber without opposition.
This had been preceded in 1909 by an amendment and supplementing of art. 342 of the Civil Code, by which the prohibition of inquiry into the paternity of illegitimate children was annulled. In order to achieve this result an agitation had been set on foot by the Netherlands Midnight Mission Society (''Ned Middernachtzending Ver.") in conjunction with the Netherlands Association for the Prevention of Prostitution (Ned. Ver. tegen de Prostitutie), the "Netherlands Women's League for the Defence of their Moral Consciousness" (de Ned. Vrouwenbond t. verh. v. h. Zed. Bew.), the "Society for the Mutual Protection of Women" (de Ver. Onderlinge Vrouwenbescherming), the "Pure Life Movement" (de Rein Leven Beweging), and other bodies, who pleaded at numerous meetings for the rights of illegitimate children.
In 1901 Children's Acts (kinderwetten) had been passèd, which came into operation in 1905, by which children are also protected against seduction and neglect, and under which parents may be deprived of the power to ill-treat their children with impunity or force them into immoralitat. By an amendment (to these Acts) introduced in 1909 thenatural, unacknowledged child is also in likemanner protected.
The Netherlands legislation in regard to these questions now stands above that of all other European nations.
. Many controversial matters still remain to be settled, however, especially in the sphere of the new malthusianism, in which an active part, for or against, is being played by women.
Moreover, Netherlands women are making efforts to get extended to their over sea colonies, both by law and social intercourse, what they have so hardly won in their own country.
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woman 8uffbage.
1887. R evision of Constitutional Law and insertion of the
word "male" in the suffrage clause.
Recognition of the Polder authorities with y oting right
for female landowners (if the regulations permit). 1897. Lab our Chambers instituted, with active and passive
woman suffrage. 1894. Association for Woman Suffrage.
Number of members about 16,000; about 16 % men
1907. Women's Suffrage League.
Number of members about 6,300; about 25 % men.
1908. Men's League for Women's Suffrage.
In 1883 our first female doctor of medicine, Dr. Aletta Jacobs, addressed a requesttothe municipal authorities of Amsterdam to be placed on the voting list of the municipality. She at the same time addressed a request to Parliament
tor the grantmg of the Parhamentary vofe. Both requests were refused; and, to prevent the possibility of such requests being made in the future, when the Constitutional Law was revised in 1887, the word "male" was inserted in Article 80 of the suffrage law. After the Women's Suffrage Association was formed in 1894 the Liberals, Radicals, and Socialists gradually included women in their Dolitical clnhs
Dr. Alktta H. Jacobs, an(j several committees of manPresident of the Women's aeement
Snffrage Association. The W'omen-s guffrage League
was founded in 1906. This league contains more Conservative elements than the Association.
The parliamentary elections of 1905 returned a majority pledged to revise the Constitutional Law in suchamanner as to make extension of the suffrage possible. The Government, 30



accordingly, appointed a State Commission to draft such a scheme of revision. In the Report made by this commission six of the seven members appointed, recommended the eligibility of women for all representative bodies.
The Government Bill, comprising the complete draft for the revision of the Constitutional Law, was introduced in October, 1907. This Bill left the qualification of electors to be determined by the Statutory Law, but recommended the extension of the suffrage to women.
It was generally expected that the Bill would be brought forward for discussion in our two Chambers of Parliament during the year 1908, but a ministerial crisis brought a new Cabinet into power, which was hostile rather than otherwise to the enfranchisement of women, and finally the Bill for the revision of the Constitutional Law was withdrawn.
In 1910 the new Government appointed a committee of nineteen members to draw up a new Bill. No women were nominated to sit on this commission, although legally qualified to act as members. Thereupon the Women's Suffrage Association appointed a committee of three of its members to draw up a report which was forwarded to the Queen, the Ministry, and the members of Parliament.
After the elections of 1913 a new Liberal Cabinet was formed, and in September of the same year the Queen made mention of women's suffrage in her speech from the throne for the first time, stating that the Constitutional impediments to women's suffrage must, in the approaching revision of the Constitutional Law, be removed. As all the political parties who form the so-called "Concentration" Government have this question on their programmes, it will in all probability be carried at the next sitting of Parliament.
Though this would mean a great step forward for the Woman's Movement, suffragists are not satisfied that only the impediments to women's suffrage should be removed from the Constitutional Law; they contend that it must appear in the Statute Book that male and female suffrage stand on precisely the same footing. They claim constitutional equality for men and women alike. To attain this result
31



a petition is being circulated, and suffragists were busily engaged on propaganda work when the war broke out and put a stop to it. The same terrible occurrence has postponed indefinitely the revision of our Constitutional Law.
Dec. 15,h, 1914.
Appendix, July, 1915.
In April, 1915, an international Congress of Women was held at The Hague. The scheme was formulated at a conference of women from neutral and belligerent countries, held at Amsterdam early in February, 1915. But for the splendid international organisation of women, principally based on the lines of woman suffrage, such acongress would have been impossible. The Netherlands women were requested to form a committee to arrange for the congress, and it was unanimously decided to ask Jane Addams to take the chair. In reply to a cable, sent by the Netherlands committee, Jane Addams cabled back: "Am coming with at least 20 of my Peace party", enlarging thereby the debt of gratitude Netherlands women already owe to their American sisters. Twelve countries were represented. The congress delegated envoys, women of both neutral and belligerent nations, to carry thé message expressed in the congress resolutions to the rulers of the belligerent and neutral nations of Europe and the President of the United States. Miss Jane Addams (U. S. A.) and Dr. Jacobs (the Netherlands) were the envoys toFrance, England, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy, the Pope, Switzerland and the Netherlands.
What the importance of the congress will be for a permanent peace in the future, it is not yettime to judge, but certainly the congress will leave its traces on the woman's movement in the Netherlands.
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LIST OF LITERATURE.
Reports of the International "Woman Scffrage Alliance.
Reports of the International Council of Women.
Die Moderne Frauenbewegung, by Kabthe Schirmachbr.
De opleiding onzer meisjes en het rapport van de Staatscommissie voor de reorganisatie van het onderwijs door: Johanna W. A. Naber.
" Vraiien de» Tijd»". Nov. 1911.
Het feminisme in [zijnen modernen vorm van christelijk standpunt beschouwd en Vrouwenkiesrecht de consequentie daarvan, door
J oh anna W. A. NABER.
"De Gid»", Oct. 1910, afzonderlijk uitgekomen bij G-. Römelingh en Co., Groningen.
*Algemeene Statistiek van de Vrouw in Nederland. Aosi Verkerk onder leiding van Mr. Ph. F alkenburg.
*Het vraagstuk van den Bedrijfsarbeid der Vrouw in Nederland door: Mr. Clara Wichmann.
*Twaalf voordrachten op dé Tentoonstelling gehouden.
*Afdeeling „Onderwijs". Statistische en andere mcdedeelingen
De Vrouw, de Vrouwenbeweging en het Vrouwenvraagstuk. Encyclopaedisch handboek onder redactie [van Mr. C M. Wkrker Bkabjon, Mr. W. H. M. Werker en Mr. Clara Wichmann.
Ditgevers-Maatschappij „Elsevier", Amsterdam 1914.
Wettelijke positie en Criminaliteit der vrouw en gevangeniswezen in 1818, door de Historische Commissie der Tentoonstelling "de Vrouw" 1818—1918.
Van Vrouwenleven 1813—1913. Ontwikkelingsgang van het leven en werken der vrouw in Nederland en de Koloniën met inleiding van Jonkvrouwe A. van Bogkndorp.
G. Römelingh en Co., Groningen.
*) Uitgaven van de Tentoonstelling de Vrouw 1818—1913. (Van der Garde, Zaltbommel).
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De Vrouwenbeweging en de strijd voor het Vrouwenkiesrecht in Nederland, door Dr. J. van Lrbdwbn.
Hollandia Drukkerij, Baarn 1914. De Vrouw in Nederland voor honderd jaar en thans, door Dr. J. van den Bergh van Eijsinga—Elias en Mr. Clara Wichmann.
Maatschappij voor goede en goedkoope lectuur, Amsterdam.
Vrouwenarbeid. [Orgaan van de Vereeniging Nationale Tentoonstelling van Vrouwenarbeid, Redactie Johanna W. A. Naber.
H. J. Foutsma, Amsterdam 1898. Na tien jaren 1898—1908 door Johanna W. A. Nabeb.
G. Römelingh, Groningen 1908. Om en bij de Tentoonstelling de Vrouw 1818—1913, door Johanna W. A. Nabeb.
G. Römelingh, Groningen 1913. Vrouwen-Kiesrecht, door Dr. Albtta H. Jacobs en F. S. van Balen—Klaar.
Maatschappij voor goede en goedkoope lectuur, Amsterdam 1913. Een Wereldcorrespondentie van'Meisjes-Studenten. Uitgegeven door de Vereeniging van Vrouwelijke Studenten te Leiden.
W. J. Brusse, MCMX Rotterdam. Vrouwenarbeid voor honderd jaar. Samengesteld van wege de Historische Commissie van de Tentoonstelling de Vrouw 1813-1913.
Amsterdam 1913. Het Vrouwenjaarboekje voor Nederland. Bewerkt aan het Nationaal Bureau voor vrouwenarbeid, door Marie Heinen, Adj. Directr.
Getuigen en Redden, |door Mej. I. Esser, geschreven bij de inzending voor de Tentoonstelling de Vrouw 1813—1913. (Roenderloo).
Bescherming van Vrouwenarbeid of Algemeene Arbeidsbescherming door M. W. H. Rutgers-Hoitskma. Uitgegeven door het Nat. Comité in zake wettelijke regeling van Vrouwenarbeid, 's-Gravenhage 1910. Het onderwijs in Nederland. Internat. Tentoonst. van Brussel 1910.
(Wolters, Groningen 1910). Door Duisternis tot Licht. Gedachten van Raden Adjeng Kartini.
Elect. Drukkerij Luctor et Emergo, 's-Gravenhage 1912. Het Maandblad voor Vrouwenkiesrecht, Jaargang 1907, Geschiedenis van de Kiesrechtbeweging.
34