tendency of that day, namely, the Reformation. In another sense it has nourished that tendency. The Renaissance and the Reformation both wrought division, and then schism among the inhabitants of this country. Both figure as the principal causes of the struggle for freedom of thought and belief among the portion of this people of the sixteenth century which was then united with Spain and Rome. The outcome of this trouble was that the inhabitants of the northern district arose in the World's History as a free, independent people. These divisions and schisms and strifes for independence — great events in the life of a people — have successively manifested themselves in our literature. He who, with good reason, sees that the Eighty Years' War served to create a distmet and powerful Netherlands, sees with equal clearness that the fall of Roman Catholicism was a great factor in this event, and he stands amazed to see that Anna Byns (1494—1575) — the maid tuil of passion — is said to owe her lasting fame to her violent and sharp-witted verses against "that cursed Lutheran sect". But this amazeraent grows into perplexity when he sees the great poet of this free-thought commonwealth, Joost van dun Vondel, turning to the Roman Catholic faith at the age of fifty years, and praising it in the highest beauty of the Netherlands language, in spite of the fact that he was the son of parents who had escaped from Rome's hierarchy.
Although the schism mentioned by Professor Kalft caused great dissension among the people, their literature — speaking for religion — had exhibited the soul of the people in its greatest power. Vondel, though the son of a well-to-do emigrant, was really a self-made man and was a giant in spirit. In "Vondel's life", writes Professor Kalff, "we see the same powers at work which were noticeable in the Amsterdam of the 17*h century, and we find in him most of the characteristics of the citizens of Amsterdam, or, what is in many respects the same thing, the citizens of the Netherlands. But the influence of Amsterdam was continually spreading and it was coming in touch with the furthermost countries of the world; and thus Vondel's vision, continually widening as he wrote, finally came to embrace the
9



He utilized wellnigh all the theories of literature. As a revolutionary he was the pioneer in the movements which, in religion and politics, opposed Liberalism. Isaac da Costa was one of his pupils.
The poet Staring and the prose writer Jacob^Geel were of literary significance in this age, though not appreciated until later.
Hendrie: Tollens was a "Cats", a people's poet, of that age, a people's bard of home happiness.
Everhard Johannes Potgieter, assisted by the historian Bakhuizen van den Brink, established a periodical called "De Gids", which engendered a fresh literary life about 1835. It severely criticised contemporary literature, unfavorably comparing it with Walter Scott, Byron and Victor Hugo and the great writers of Old Holland, apparently having praise for no recent writers excepfc Staring and Geel. This magazine came to be called (from the color of its cover) "The Blue Executioner'.
After 1843 Bakhuizen van den Brink occupied himself entirely with historical studies. However, the old " Gids" continued to exist and published critiques on Vondel and the realism of the 19th Century and on contemporary works. Potgleter, originally under the influence of Lamb and Sterne, became the premier critic of his age. He saw in art 'the lever of our education as an independent people". He held that unprejudiced criticism was the primary need. The 17,h Century was continually held up as an example for the 19th; we must, could and would educate ourselves up to their Standard. His sketches and novels were written in an entirely personal style, to the understanding of which education and erudition were a necessity, just as with his poetry. For nearly twenty years he worked on with highest expectations, but afterwards appeared completely disappointed, though he continued to produce, and it was principally the poetry of this later period which made people call him the greatest poet of the day.
Two novelists were developed at this time under the influence of foreign Romanticism: Jacob van Lennep wrote "Legends of the Netherlands", beginning it in verse, in 14



imitation of Sir Waltbr Scott. But he found his strength in historica! novels, which were stories with ingenious intrigue, full of humor, very pleasingly told, but superficial in characterization. Anne Louise Gebtbuida Toussaint quite late in life marrïed Bosboom, the painter, who had fame both in England and America and whose paintings of churches
Madam A. L. Gr. Bosboom—Toossaint.
gained for him the title "Poet of the Palette". Herdescriptious of conditions and characters were much deeper than those of Van Lennbp. She was, above all, a religious woman, a fervent Protestant; but she was too much of an artist not to maintain a certain freedom of thought and action.
After these came Nicolaas Bbets, originally also a
15



As an importing country, the Netherlands has always been quick to attract and import foreign products of intellect. In the middle of the 19"' Century our acting was founded quite naturally upon the French. The present-day theatre is much less appreciated. Ibsen is played here, but in these plays our actors have never made the successes they have made elsewhere, especialiy in Germany. Much interest is taken here in the English work of the stage and, following the lead of the English Gokdon Craio, stage management has been much improved within the last ten years. Two leaders compete in this braaich: William Royaards and Eduard Verkade. The former has done his country the greatest service by producing the works of Vondel, even one which had never before been given, and has attracted the pubüc to his presentations by surprisingly ingenieus exhibitious, sometimes with fine original music. As a recitationist also Royaards did extraordinary service for his country.
It is characteristic of Amsterdam that it is difficult to get the " Upper Ten" to the theatre. In Rotterdam it is different. There the theatre has been brought to a higher plane by the excellent artists Dirk and Jaap Haspels, and by their able supporters, the comic actor Willem van Zuylen and the author-actor Rosier Faassen and the Flemish tragédienne Catherina Beersmans. Rotterdam now has the clever actress Alida Tartaud — Klein and the good stage manager and earnest actor Jan C. dk Vos. A younger man with a bright future is Jan Musch.
The plays of Heyermans were originally acted by a little company especialiy trained, the only remaining member of which is the fine actress Mrs. de Boer van Ryk, who is playing in a new company bearing the original name and directed by Heyermans himself.
In consequence of the general moving picture craze, the daughters of the higher classes are developing a tendency for the stage. Enny Vrede has made a fine success in this work
Strangers look with amazement upon the number of periodieals that appear in our country. The pay of editors is naturally meagre and that of their associates never high. As 32



writing books in our country is never lucrative, many an author seeks a living in the daily press, not exactly as an editor but as a paid contributor. A comparison of our daily press with that of other countries, for example, Belgium, shows a decided superiority for the Netherlands.
Our daily papers reach their readers through subscrip-
Dr. A Kuyper.
tion. The sale at book-staüs and on the street is, except in extraordinary times, comparatively small. Nearly every village has its regular paper which is issued once or twice a week, The daily papers of the Provinces are the most important of their district. There are many dailies in the large
33



1128












1.128
E 66 1
A GENERAL VIEW OF THE NETHERLANDS
NUMBER XVIII. LITERATURE by JOH. DE MEESTER



THE SERIES OF PAMPHLETS GIVING TOGETHER A GENERAL VIEW OF THE NETHERLANDS HAS BEEN PÜBLISHED FOR THE P. P. I. E. 1915 UNDER DIRECTION OF THE COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT OF THE NETHERLANDS MINISTRY OF AGRICÜLTURE, INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE AT THE HAGUE
THIS SERIES CONSI8TS OF THE FOLLOWING NUMBERS:
i. agriculturb and cattle
breeddjg.
II. NURSEKIES.
in-vh. industries. - p. doyeb. mbchanical engineer.
viii. trade. - pbof. dr. h. blink.
ix. fishebies. - dr. p. g. van
tienhoven.
x. cürbency and banking. -
paul 8 abel.
xi. holland on the sea8. -
j. h. cohen stuakt.
xii. ports and waterways. -
v. j. p. de blocq van kuffeleb. ctvil engineer.
xiii. wh AT to see in the ne¬
therlands erom an engineer's point op view. - r. p. j tutein nolthenius. civil engineer.
xiv. engineers and contrac-
tobs. - b. p. j. tutein nolthbnius. civil engine eb.
xv. education. - j. c. ligtvobt.
xvi. science.
1 unïversitdis. - db. p. c. MOL-
HUYSEN.
2 THEOLOGICAli INSTBUCTION. -
PROF. DR. L. KNAPPERT.
3 A REVIEW OF THE LAW. - DR. J.
VAN KUYK.
4 MEDICAI. SCIENCE. - PROF. DR.
E. C. VAN I,EERSUM. 6 FACULTY OFMATHEMATICS AND NATURAL SCIENCE. - DR. j. a. VOLLQRAFF.
6 MATHEMATICS. - PROF. DR. J.
CARDINAAL.
7 PHYSICS - DR. J.A. VOLI.GRAFF. ■
8 ASTRONOMY. - PROF. DR. W. DE
BITTER.
9 MINERALOGY, GEOLOGY AND
RELATED BRANCHES OF SCIENCE. - PROF. J. VAN BAKEN.
10 BOTANY. - DR. TH. VALETON.
11 ZOOLOGY. - DR. A. SCHIERBEEK.
12 CHEHISTBY.- DB.W. P. JORISSEN.
13 CLASSICAL LITERATURE. -DR.P.
C. MOLHUYSEN.
14 ORIËNT AL LITERATURE. - C. VAN
AREN DONK.
15 NETHERLANDS LITERATURE. -
DB. H. J. A. BUYS
16 Hl STORY. - PROF. DR. P. J. BLOK.
XVII. MENTAL, BKLIGIOUS AND
SOCIAL FOBCBS. - PBOF. DB. H. BAVINCK.
XVIII. LITERATURE. - JOH. DE
MEESTER.
XIX. MUSIC. - 8. VAN MILLIGEN.
XX. FINE ARTS. - C. VETH.
XXI. AKCHITECTURE. - A. W.
WEISSMAN. AROHITBCT.
XXII. PUBLIC HEALTH. - DB. M. W.
PIJNAPPEL.
XXIII. SPORT. - JONKHEER JAN
FEITH.
XXIV. THE WOMAN'S MOVEMENT. -
DB. MIA BOISSEVAIN.
XXV. THE PEACE MOVEMENT. -
JONKHEER DR. B. DE JONG VAN BEEK EN DONK.



THE LITERATURE OF THE NETHERLANDS (belles-lettres, the stage, and the daily press) by JOH. DE MEESTER.



Joost van den Vondkl.



THE LITERATURE OF THE NETHER-
LANDS (BETiLES-LETTRES, THE STAGE, AND THE DAILY PRESS) by JOH. DE MEESTEE.
?VO the Netherlander bis literature is as precious as is his 1 home to the Englishman. While the scholars, naturalists, engineers, philosophers, theologians, painters and musicians of the Netherlands have achieved world-wide renown, their authors have been content with abarelynationalrecognition. The few books which are read abroad in the original tongue are but the exception to prove the rule.
What is the fame of Mültatuli in Germany (translated by Spohr) compared to the world-wide révérence for Ibsen? I have read bis "Ghosts" and "Rosinersholm" in three languages, but never in the original, and so I am not able to say how much of the beauty of his work has been lost by translation, but I am sure that the literature of the Netherlands loses vastly in translation, even though the style of expression may be but one feature among the indestructible characteristics of the works.
The many young Americans who come to Kthe Laud of Mauve" for study, no doubt discover in the instrüction they receive many peculiarities of technique which differ from their native conceptions. While the specific characteristics of thegreatmasterin "the Land of Rembrandt", in his touches of the brush which have become famous among art historians, diner from those of all other countries, there still remains a great similarity to others in mattere of technique. Nevertheless, a room of Netherlands paintings does not, by any means, resemble a room of paintings from any other country. This has been as evident at San Francisco as in the Netherlands exhibits at other international expositions. If the San Francisco exhibit had been confined strictly to old Netherlands art, the contrast would have been stül stronger. The impression would have been of peculiar restfulness, as
3



thöugh one were riding into a small town full of pretty, old houses with gardens of flowers and where, in asociable, albeit lonely, market-place, would stand a beautiful palace called the Town Hall. This calmness, this cordiality — grotesque though it could be called — is always genuine; it cannot be without being genuine, and this has always been the motif of our art. Superficial observation might not at first discover this; it becomes apparent only after study and attention. If, in a procession of conventionaüy dressed people, military with uniforms and official decorations, and groups of gaudily dressed women, there should follow a little company of church-goers, in quiet, somber dress, they would typify the sober display of Netherlands art at many of the world expositions.
If the subject matter of a book could be judged by its outward appearance, our later literature would beconsidered as a specially characteristic display at the Exposition of Graphic Art recently held at Leipzic.
Just as our paintings as a whole suggest the quiet of the country town, our literature is in the style which might, with equal imagery, be called rural. While seldom does the word "rural" denote something greatly to be desired, but rather, on the other hand, something insignificant, shallow, or norrow-minded, yet, I askall people not born in a world city, what treasures of feeling, triumphing over all other emotions, are not aroused in their souls at times when they lose themselves in reveries of their rural birthplace!
I am writing this during a world war which is jeopardizing countries and peoples. In these times small States, more than others, reckon with the possibiüties of the worst calamities. Have not the anxieties of this condition developed as never before an appreciation of one's own, be it only a little hamlet, or even a smaller district where only a certain dialect is spoken? How small the Netherlands are compared to other countries! Yet how uncosily large it seems to me when I compare it with the little province of Gelderland, my birthplace, whose peculiarities are nowhere else to be found! Thus do we Netherlanders feel about our language when we compare it to French, or German, or English. 4



It pleases us that people are not much acquainted with bur language. It seems to us that these world languages miss something that we have attained: that something which is clung to by the farmers of my district, but lost in other corners of the Netherlands; that something which does not and cannot wear out; that something which constitutes the treasure of one's language. No stranger canreally learnthat; it is the secret sign of recognitionthrough which compatriots everywhere recognize each other! Who that understands such a watchword will care to use Volapük or Esperanto?
Oh, the possession of this wealth of language unknown to others, costs the Netherlanders dear! Our cities, even our towns, are in these war times cosmopolitan. There are always strangers in the harbor town (Rotterdam) where I live. Refugees from the Far East on their way to hospitable America cbatter in tongues whose origin we cannot with certainty recognize. There, we constantly hear English and German, and still other languages, from sailors and business visitors; we have strangers for our guests. This commercial city is now also a tourist city. Promenaders all about us talk French — mostly French. Who of them would for a moment be willing to speak Netherlands? The Englishman asks his way of us, as a matter of course, in English; just as we, traveling in England or America — feeling sure that we cannot expect others to know our language — ask our way in English. Our language is like a house coat which we wear only at home, but have wé not experienced our happiest moments in this same house coat? Are we otherwise ever really our true selves, and will not our children in later years think of father with deepest love when thinking of him in the simplicity of the house coat?
The wealth of his own language costs the Netherlands author dearly. It touches bis vanity and his purse. Hispride — though not necessarily his self-consciousness — suffers because there is never anything written about him in the world's Press and literary directories, as there is so extensively about novelists in other countries. His purse suffers on this account — perhaps he himself also, as it deprives him of an independent "existence". In a small country a man does
5



not live "by his pen", at all events not as a literary man. The Netherlands painter may rise above such questions with a smile, because, by the love of his work and by its appreciation abroad, even though he be deprived of monetary reward, he may become more than independent.
When the young Netherlands novelist reads about the years of poverty of a Zola, he may as well go out upon the street, even if it is toward night, since no "soirées de Medan" will ever follow upon his attic evening, even though he have the giant talent of Zola. He is in the dilemma of not being able to devote all his time to his work, for fear of spoilinghia disposition; while if he does, he forces himself to live in a world uncongenial to his artistic nature and warps his character.
Luxury, however costly, has some practical worth. How many painters of great talent — whom Jozef Iskaels so rejoicingly calls "potboilers" — have continued painting because of success in England and America I But the author, who never earns any money no matter how he works, still cüngs to his task. Why should he consider the wishes of the public, since, despite all compromises, he cannot buy with money the happiness of a free-as-an-artist life! He writes simply for his work's sake. Thus our recent literature, like that of the "Golden Age", attains ever-increasing independence, leading even to mind and language anarchism. This undeniable fact, however, need not prevent the pointingout of a foreign influence upon our literature of the present day, just as upon that of former periods. Later we will speak of the influences that are being exerted in this day, but now we will begin with those of earlier times.
The person, or thing, to be influenced mustexist. When did literature first exist here ? I will let the scholars answer this. In the "History of Literature" just published by Dr. J. Pbinzen Jls he says, in the Introduction: "I desire to begin this history with the first works that were written in the idioms belonging to the country now known as the Netherlands. These have a certain beauty, even though that was not primarily striven after; for their style, which was comparatively arbitrary, was really a secondary matter. 6



Quite seldom, indeed, did the early literature of the Netherlands exhibit a consciousness of individüal nationality. Herein lies a world of more or less mysterious literary life. The Priesians, Saxons and Franks who, ages ago, livedhere, must have brought their inheritance of mental culture with them, which may thus be considered as a general Germanic possession, rather than as the basis of our Netherlands unity. Much earlier may Christianity have expressed itself in our country in the beautiful style and imagery of the language of Rome,, and, too, the Latin civilization and literature may have preserved their vitality in the heart of the Middle Ages. But if the early Roman language be not classed with general Christian literature, its civilization can be of no consequence and it can' not exert its influence upon established Netherlands literature".
Limiting ourselves to the use of the "Dietsche" language, we can, at least, accept the fact of its existence at the end of the twelfth century and thus we establish a beginning. "There was a time", writes this same Peinzen, "when our Netherlands fbrmed the centre of a domain which stretched from the Vistula to the Ebro". Here was the point where Roman and German culture mingled; here probably the hand of the same monk wrote the oldest work of French literature, "Cantilene de Sainte-Eulalie", as well as the German "Ludwig's Lied"; here theCarloviniandynasty had its principal domain, here its palaces. Aachen (Aix-laChapelle) became the Rome of theNorth, with the first signs of a revival of classical antiquity: from here went forth the first united authority over Franks, Saxons and the Friesian tribe; here monasteries and abbeys arose, libraries formed, and miniature and embroidery flourished; and here foreign commerce first awakened at a time when the products of agriculture, vintage and weaving throughout the rest of Europe depended wholly upon home consumption.
After the death of the mighty ruler began a dissolution which was later brought to unity in the Burgundian reign. The landlordism characteristic of the Burgundian monarchy has been of great significance in our history. The glitter of the Burgundian court, the bloom of the Netherlands cities,
7



the wealth of the luxury-loving nobility, have all had a great influence upon the development of art and science. It was in every respect a famous period — abeautiful age of art that manifested itself in the simplest objects for home use and elevated all other art.
Of belles-lettres, however, less may be said. "'Tis true, much was produced, but it had little significance; indeed, prominent writers did not use the Netherlands language. French was the most used official court language, and from it originated our bastard style. While the greatest writers used Latin, in the souls of the people the new language was taking root. Public recitations of literary works were given at Ghent in the early fifteenth century. The City accounts mention poets (probably professional poets) who hired a hall to give popular lectures, of course charging admission fees. The important thing of the day was that the populace took an interest in art. Thus a deeper, but not a broader, literary life arose. Amateurs united in literary guilds, crowded out the professional poets; printing had arisen along with authorship. and books began to appear that were within reach of small purses. A peculiar literature developed itself towards the second half of the sixteenth century. The popular book of Reinaert de Vos in its preface asks the people not only to read, but to re-read, in order to grasp the true meaning. Through this author the people rediscovered themselves. His Bible stories were beloved and also his classical tales, such as "The Seven Churchesof Rome" and • The Destruction of Troy". At this time the French, much more than the British, novels of Knight-Errancy pushed their way to the front. Professor G. Kallp, at the close of a review of the literature of this Age, asks: "Would our people have gone further upon this path by their own power to a higher conception of the art of Language — a deeper entrance into her very being ?" An unanswerable question! We, who endeavor to teil what has happened, see that we have progressed thus far, just as other modern nations,by a renaissance of ancient culture.
Mental development spreads itself quietly and pierces deeply. In one sense it runs parallel with another important 8



entire world. He had the power which dared tindertake big things, and he created and developed great plans. With a powerful striving after development he began the study of Latin and Greek when he was nearly forty years old, and thus we find in his style the influence of great lyric and didactic poems. He was a sturdy worker for whom no exertion was too great if it made him master of his art. Histranslations alone, which for that time were excellent, would take the whole strength of a talented but less fervent worker. We find in him a real thirst for beauty, a fiery love of Iiberty and an inner piety; but also the lack of fine feeling, which occasionally exhibits itself in a coarseness of language which, however, was common to many authors of his time. Herald of the brilliant times to come, which he himself lived to see, and which produced for us men such as Maurits, Frbderik Hendrik, de Ruyter, Rembrandt, and dk Groot, he belonged to a generation that made the Republic of the United Netherlands great".
Nevertheless, when this man, at the age of twenty-five, but recently happily married and the owner of a good business, wrote his Introduction to "Pascha", he spoke of "the tragedy of our life of misery". In dying as a Christian he saw «a wished-for solution" and thought that the only way for man to avoid the positioh of an exile on earth was through the expectation of a glorious future after death.
"One who, like Vondel, was so often alternately attracted and repulsed by the world", writes Kalpe, "must have, above all, the need of a firm conviction; but for one of his character it was not easy to gainafirm footing". Religious questions were stirring up the times, the country and, even more so, Vondel's heart. The am bition of the preachers tortured him, for there was constraint upon conscience in the land that had fought so long for freedom of belief. Kalfp thinks that for Vondel "Catholicism seemed more elastic than the new faith, as it did not urge him constantly and everywhere to choose between heaven and heil, but left him free to respect the old faith. His love of beauty and the inexplicable mysteries of Catholicism, gave him an opportunity tó satisfy his craving for the eternal and his tendency 10



to contemplation. The sensual church services, with their dramatic character, must have been dearer to his artistic soul than the simple, exalted but unadorned services of Protestantism". Thus, then, the greatest poet of Protestant Netherlands was a Catholic, while still heart and soul a Netherlander and truly Netherlands.
Although famous even during his lifetime, many of his contemporaries neither sought nor found much in Vondel. Indeed, none of the great poets in the Netherlands were what the Germins call "volkstümlich". "Father Cats" was the only one to whom this term might be applied. He was the very pious — the Calvinistically pious — but at the same time sensuous Jacob Cats, whom, later, the people did not wish to know too well. He was^ar excellence the story teller in verse, a humorist and a moralist. His theory was "be passionless and cunning, work and pray; the present life is worth this, besides the still better world which awaits you". His countrymen saw in his doctrine a moral teaching which made them for a long time rate his work along with the Bible.
Hoopt, who was made a knight, and whose father, from the burgher class, had been an excellent Mayor of Amsterdam, was a writer who illustrated the quick development of luxury, the moral refinement of mental culture of the people whose battles had brought liberty to their land.
Bredero, poet and writer of comedies and verses, was a man descended from the people. His father was a well-to-do and art-loving shoemaker who wished him to be a painter. But as an author he painted what he saw, feit and thought more cleverly and strikingly in words than in colors. Tn the preface to one of his works he declared that he wrote to improve conditions and to please, and with the consciousness that wthe best artists are those who conie in closest touch with life".
Vondel was the powerful man who ruled alone by the marvels of his style. Hooft was the pioneer sculptor of refined language. Bredero, a great man in this land of painting, a man of the people, a humorist, was, above all, the painter with the pen. All three wrote in poetry, as did also Jacob van Maerlant, who was a writer on medicine and
11



on sacred and secular history. That this kind of writing was done in verse, proves the traditional power there is in this form of writing.
Maerlant even translated prose into verse, and while his work is artistically constructed and has real rhythm, the verses in his great book are really no more than rhyming prose. The old power of versification was not broken until the advent of the new age.
Mr. Willem Bilderdijk.
The characteristic feature of the splendid and rich 17th Century is its manysidedness. Vondel, impersonating the poetry of this age, rose far above it with his powerful imagination; Hooft was the individual who loved beauty; the homely writing of Cats was the nearest to the people. 12



Passing now to the beginning of the 19th century, we find William Bildhrdyk, for a long time called the Netherlands' greatest poet after Vondel. Later he was considered by the critics simply as a verse-maker, and not a poet, but in any event he was a man whose talent awakened amazement. He enthusiastically took up arms against Rationalism, yet held fast to the rhetoricians. He called poetry an "unbosoming of
E. j. Potgieter.
feeling". From him feeling poured itself forth all too easily, all too freely, all too abundantly, until it of ten degenerated into improvisation and self-eXcitement. Nevertheless, he is a factor of great significance in our spiritual and literary life. He despised the intellectualism of the 18,h Century, and harked back to Calvinism. Above alfc he was a reactionary.
13



follower of English and French Romanticism. His writings were infiuenced especially by Byron, but his real fame was foundëd on his sketches in prose which were of neither a gloomy nor romantic nature. In a volume called "Camera Obscura", which was written in natural and choice language, the author calls himself "Hildebrand". It contains sketches
0. Busken Hdet.
of his student days, full of genuine Netherlands humor and sound realism, indicating very close observation. A monument has been erected to "Hildebrand". None of the prose or poetical writings of Bbets in later life surpassed the works 16



of his youth. He occupies a modest place among the poets of the Netherlands.
Beets was first and foremost a preacher and one of distinction. For half a century our literature has been controlled by preachers, whose writings were dominated by their need to moralize. But in these writings the spiritual life of the people has been mirrored. Fierce contentions had arisen in
E. Dodwes Dekker (Multatdli).
the church, for besides the orthodox preachers, "modern" preachers were also in evidence. Among these moderns must be mentioned Conrad Busken Huet, who was an earlier co-worker of Potgieter. He was a sharp critic and he defined the right of criticism in his "Articles about the
17



Bible". He later devoted himself to literary criticism of a fresher and more interesting, as well as awakening nature. The influence of his sharpness of vision continued e ven into the next century. This influence was not, however, as great as that of Multatuli, which was the pen name of Eduard Douwes Dekker. In a period which was ruled by preachers, he was the opposer of all "faith". This was a period of great stagnation in literature as well as other activities of life. His passionate book, called "Max Havelaar", was a bitter reproach. It was a hastily written work of art, a novel of consciously whimsical form, and while it was not a mere pamphlet, and while there was no Dreyfus trial, it suggested Zola's brochure " J'accuse". The "trial" in this book was of the Netherlands Government in Java. It was a plea for the Javanese, a sharp rebuke to all counterfeit virtue, all tartuffery and narrowmindedness, as exemplified in the Netherlands merchants.
As a moralist, Multatuli worked negatively, and his tremendous influence, at first upon young students and later upon the youth of all classes of society, did not prove permanent. He was the pioneer in this field.
The natural style of Multatuli and the critical insight of Huet proved to be two great infiuences towards an awakening in our recent literature, which has come to be known as the "Nieuwe Gids Beweging" (The New Guide Movement). In the fall of 1885 the younger men establisbed, in competition to "De Gids" (The Guide) a publication called "De Nieuwe Gids" (The New Guide). The new publication began as a critic. Huet had complained for years that criticism had been pitiless, but in the new publication commendation was as extravagant as criticism was fierce; at least this is so in what Van Deyssel wrote. Contrasted with this tone was the calmer criticism of Kloos, who pointed out and explained the essence of poetry and the reality of art and showed the beauty of old and of recent art, as well as the want of taste in what for years had been praised as being good. They criticised the homely poets, and those who considered beauty as divine in itself, and those who gave to their endless moralising an appearance of art form. They criticised
18



the influence of preachers and, just as strongly, the spirit of the new Nationalism.
The genial and passionate Van Deyssbl, a son of the Catholic writer J. A. Alberdingk Thym, foresaw that the Netherlands "would be swept forward in the progress of the nations"..A fresh literary life had, indeed, arisen
K. J. L. Alberdingk Thijm (Lodbwijk van Deijssel).
after Multatuli. The "Nieuwe Gids" men rejuvenated our language. Though both Kloos and Van Deyssel lost their influence much earlier than was expected, and though there was a division among the leaders of '85, yet, as Dr. de Vooys
19



Willbk Kloos.
20



expresses it," the assertion that the new art went from a short period of gloom to that of decadence, is denied by the facts". But he also saysthat "there might be awakened a dangerous pride among the mediocres, which would considerably lower the standard of criticism, if we overestimate the leading men of the former period and the young ones of this period, and if we cultivate the idea that the present day Netherlands literature has earned aplace of honor and reached a hitherto unknown height in comparison with other European countries".
Soon after '80 there came a strong tendency toward popular education, which manifested itself in the organization of the World Exposition at Amsterdam, which was the only one ever held in the Netherlands.
The people had a twofold aspiration, one political, for Radicalism and Democracy, and one literary and artistic, which was radical and only to a small extent democratie, and somewhat over-serious, because of its self-conscious young strength. At first these two aspirations tended to amalgamate the people, but afterwards it separated them. The literary movement seemed to be radical but not sufficiently democratie. The political movement took on greater strength and continued to show its opposition to the concentration of authority. The literary movement finally became predominant and, ha ving made its tendency feit in the camp of the original opponents, became the leader by common consent, and here the antithesis ceases.
The literature of our present day, the very best that has been produced, has in no sense become popular. One of the most important books by Marcellus Emants, the "Nagelaten Bekentenis" (Posthumous Confession), may be found in little heaps in the open-air book stores under the railroad viaduct at Rotterdam. Our best critics have praised Frans Coenen as a genuine classic. Ask how his books sell I Nearly all authors of today hail Van Deyssel as a leader and as a delicate spirit who has uttered the watchword, the great cry which inspires the army. In a critique of Van Deyssel's work, J. M. Acket gives a long list of short sentences and phrases taken from his critical essays, which point out a
21



huraber of the principles of art as well as of literature. Yet how few of Van Dbyssel's volumes of famous essays reached their second edition!
What a difference in the relation between the public and the authors of today and these between the public and the authors of the middle of the last century! It is true that even Potgieter, who was one of the most worthy and important, if not the most important, of his day, has reniain-
JaC. van LiOOY.
ed unpopular, and the much more superficial novels of Van Lennep are more universally read than the tinest works of Bosboom Toussaint. But in this unpopularity, •which extended to even the most worthy writers, there was a great confusion of ideas; for while the novelist Herman Robbers cried out (in relation to Jacques van Looy) "People, what joyl We have Van Looy", on the other hand, Jan
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van den Oude, the former critic of thé "Nieuws van den Dag" (Daily News), said the volume of. "Feasts" might just as well have remained unpublished since we already had the popular tales of a certain Van Maurik. Such an anarchy of mind and such a want of artistic taste has,'indeed, been deplorable.
Gradually a change came; a nucleus of good readers read and the others at least knew how to appreciate good literature, even if they could but slowly come to an agreement with it; but second editions have been scarce. The Netherlands, however, is indeed small. The novels of de Goncourts are just as little popular in France as here. Van Deyssel has devoted an essay to de Goncourts which is one of the best that has been written about him in France or elsewhere. "From de Goncourts", he says, "one can learn what language is".
Thé prose of the younger generation is in reality an imitation of the French of the school of Flaubert. Van Deyssei> has written critiques of Zola which are Like lyric prose, songs.
People in our commercial country understand languages. fiere we read French, German, English — and sometimes Italian — novels, and sometimes we translate them. But the real literary spirit existed only among a small coterie, and hence the literary theory of naturalism was entirely new to the general public when Van Deyssel, at twenty-óne years of age, produced his novel called "Love". Likewisè, the beautiful descriptive- prose of Jacques van Looy was not at first understood.
If opposition awakened toward naturalism, there was still another resistance working against the new poetry. This non-didaétic, never-moralizing but, on the contrary, antimoral individualistic work — was this interesting? The poets themselves contended it was, but at the same time made much ado about the easily understood verses which satisfied the public. But it took but little indeed to satisfy the general public.
But now an end has come to this. Shelley and Keats, inspired by the new poetry, are being read by the masses as
28



once Byron was. The homely rhymes and rhetoric in the style of Bilderdijk have been discarded by the cultured in the Netherlands. The verses of Willem Kloos are charac terized as "passion which, uttered, is full of significance". If the poetry of Kloos was as strongly individualistic as possible in its contrast, that of Herman Gorter was equally so
Dr. Fred van Eedbn.
in form. Sometimes his language almost reached the limits of comprehension. The productive era of these two poets, as well as of Van Deyssel, was soon ended. The contemporary but somewhat younger and less talented Albert Verwey, 24



comes forward with his less passionate and more sensible work, and becomes leader of a group of younger poets. Henkiette van der Schalk who, later, married the painter Roland Holst, appeared a few years after the establishment of the new régime. Her verses were scientific and profound, and were characterized by great freedom of rhythm. She worked herself loose from the individualism of the younger poets, and her poetry, originally contemplative, was full of passion for the new ideas, but seldom appealed to the multitude. This socialist is not only one of the most gifted but also, in every respect, one of the most important women of the Netherlands.
Among the poets of the "Nieuwe Gids" mustbe mentioned Dr. Frederik van Eeden, a man whose boasted versatility and whose talents ran more to productivity than to depth, and who was just for this reason more popular — even winning fame abroad. He has written beau tiful verses, novels, essays and plays. Even as a student he wrote comedies. His story "De Kleine Johannes" (The Little John) is a work of prose full of poetry.
A mere recitation of names in a review of this kind seems useless, but it may be of general interest to say that Marcellus Emants, who wrote just before the appearance of the "Nieuwe Gids", had a keen, psychological talent, and produced a series of pessimistic books. This pessimism was also taken up by some noted writers of the younger class, like Aletrino and Frans Coenen.
Much of our literary work is by women, especially novels The poetess Helene Swarth is among the oldest of the recent period. Women are well educated in the Netherlands, and the emancipation of the sex has accomplished much. A man can with difficulty support himself with the pen, but a girl, or even a marrièd woman, needs to earn less, and thus the number of women authors is comparatively large.
We are in the habit of including as "our literature" the labor of the Netherlands-speaking Flemish people. Nearly all Flemish books are published in North Netherlands. After a few centuries of insignificance, the literature of the Southern
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Netherlands again began to bloom in the 19lh century. It was championed by the "Flemish Movement", which was the struggle for the right of Flemish as a language in Bel-
Guido Gkzkllk.
gium, cöordinate with the French which, after 1830, threat-
ened to become the only language.
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The poet priest Guido Gbzelle was a true, great. preacher, but he was defamed and disowned in his own land until the appearance, in 1893, of his book called "Tijdkrans", when he could no longer be kept in the background. After this, the liberal, as well as the French disposed clergy were forced to admit that the younger generation honored as a noble poet this singer of the holiness and beauty of nature.
Herman Heijermans Jr.
In this generation there were other poets of great significance, as well as some excellent prose writers To the latter class belongs Güido's nephew, Styn Streuvels, who is entitled to rank with Van Looy.
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Besides Multatuli. only two other writers of this age have gained foreign recognition, namely, Frederik van Eeden, already mentioned, and Herman Heyermans, who was primarily a play writer. He lived for a while in Berlin, after a few of his plays had been given in Germany. All his
Louis Bouwmeester. Like Shylock in "The Merchant of Venetia."
works have "temperament", — all manner of misery and social evil has he pictured. He belongs to the naturalistic school, and is a genuine Netherlander in this. Like the 17lh 28



Century Bredero, he was a moralist, rather than an exploiter of intrigues or a seeker after dramatic situations.
Bredero found his material in Spanish knight-errancy and in other foreign scènes, but came into his own with his farces which, though not more than dramatised anecdotes, still attracted because they were glimpses from the lives of the common people, which he knew how to picture with beauty in unadulterated vernacular
Heyermans, who, under the pseudonym of "Falkland", wrote a number of sketches of about the length of a one-day feuilleton, brought to our modern stage with genuinely Netherlands art a humorous and touching representation of the life of the common people. These contributed, more than any others, toward making a new national theatre-literature. Our flourishing theatres depend too much upon foreign countries. Neither the managers nor the public have encouraged writers of native original plays, and the translation of foreign works received but small reward. Not until recently was the Netherlands a member of the Berne Convention. The writers themselves were, to some extent, blameable for this condition, for with few exceptions they did not succeed in writing plays of consequence which were suitable for the stage; even the versatile Emants succeeded with but a single play. Van Eeden, however, wrote really lively and suitable plays for the stage, even before he had a name as a poet.
Besides Heyermans, the Rotterdam theatre—which has been brought to a high Standard — gave us Mrs. J. A. SimonsMees and William Schorman (who died in his youth), as well as Van Noühtjys and the political journalist J. de Koo, who produced a few plays which attracted full houses. Later playwriters are Mrs. Ida Boudier—Bakker, who is a refined novelist, and J. Fabricius, as well as Frans Mynssen, who wrote what in Germany are called "Kamerspiele". These were the very opposite of the romantic pieces which Jonkheer van Riemsdyk endeavored to make popular.
Poetry and the theatre originated among us during the days of knighthood. In the 16"' Century prominent men of intellect and taste in Amsterdam formed themselves into
29



literary societies. In 1585 the cause of our literature was given a great impetus by the many educated South Nether-
Mevr. Tuéo Mann—Bouwmeester.
landers who settled in the North. Play-acting became a profession, and by the 18lh Century we had some very creditable 30



actors and they often performed abroad. While the school of acting at Rotterdam has added to the culture of the present day theatre, ithas added little or nothingto its inner development. The stage itself has always been our best school. Our natural talent for acting continuesto survive.lt is best exemplified in our two leading actors Louis Bouwmeester and
Willem Botaards.
his [sister, Theo Bouwmeester, who were born of famous theatre blood and who have themselves been for years an honor to our stage. Louis Bouwmeester has won admiration for his Shylock in Berlin, London and other foreign cities.
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cities. Among the most important there are six which have distinct morning and evening editions. Some creditable dailies are issued in our colonies, especialiy Java. The natives sometimes have their own papers.
The "directeur" of a paper in the Netherlands is generally the business manager, the director of the fmances and the technical work. Next to, and entirely independent of him, there is an editor-in-chief as intellectual leader Besides the money received for subscriptions, the dailies publish many advertisements which are placed in a part of the paper specially reserved for them.
No one has more cleverly shown what can be accomplished by a daily paper than the leader of the Anti-revolutionary Party — the clergyman and ex-Prime Minister Dr. A. Kuypee, founder and manager of "De Standaard". The editor-in-chief of the "Nieuwe Rotterdamsche Courant". Dr. Lamping, also a clergyman, has been unusually useful to the Liberal Party. Stül another clergyman, the late Mr. de Koo, wrote for the Radicals.
In the Netherlands a politician has less general influence as leader of the daily press than in many other countries, but a notable exception as a statesman-journaüst is the Minister of State, Jonkheer Mr. de Savornin Lohman. Among the Liberal statesmen who have exercised an influence upon the general public through monthlies and dailies may be mentioned Mr. Goeman Borgesius.
Although Dr. Kuyper has remained the undisputed master of style among the daily press writers, and although the clerical tendencies of this press had brought their profit, yet the Liberal press has been more greatly developed.
Mr. Charles Boissevain, who is also known in America, and who controls the Liberal daily "Handelsblad", has for half a century proved himself to be a causeur of never-failing fitness. The late Simon Gorter and H de Veer were the moralists of the smaller press, and M J BrusseIs the powerful advocate of the poor.
A foreigner is often at a loss to know the authors of newspaper articles. for most of them in the Netherlands press are not signed. Many readers know who the writers are; but 34



most of those who write criticisms on art for the daily papers and for the weekües do not sign. On the whole, individualism is tolerated in our papers but not encouraged.
A few papers have correspondents who work exclusively for them in the large European cities. Others avail themselves of desultory paid correspondents in European cities, in our colonies and in the United States. In The Hague and in Amsterdam are news bureaus which furnish syndicated articles to a number of papers. The Netherlands has a journalistic circle connected with the International Association.
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