THE EPITHET IN ENGLISH AND ■ SCOTTISH, SPANISH AND ■ DANISH POPULAR BALLADS
► '• 28
■ BY =====
M. C. BORREGAARD



/











THE EPITHET IN ENGLISH AND ■ SCOTTISH, SPANISH AND ■ DANISH POPULAR BALLADS
ACADEMISCH PROEFSCHRIFT
TER VERKRIJGING VAN DEN GRAAD VAN DOCTOR IN DE LETTEREN EN WIJSBEGEERTE AAN DE UNIVERSITEIT VAN AMSTERDAM, OP GEZAG VAN DEN RECTOR-MAGNIFICUS Mr. I. H. HIJMANS. HOOGLEERAAR IN DE FACULTEIT DER RECHTSGELEERDHEID, IN HET OPENBAAR TE VERDEDIGEN IN DE AULA DER UNIVERSITEIT, OP DONDERDAG 6 JULI 1933, DES NAMIDDAGS TE 3 UUR
DOOR
META CATHERINE BORREGAARD
GEBOREN TE LONDEN.



I welcome this opportunity for expressing my warmest thanks to Prof. Dr. A. E. H. SWAEN, of the University of Amsterdam, for his unfailing kindness in giving i\jd help and advice during the compilation of this little book.
The Hague, 1933.
Dedicated to my parents.



INTRODUCTION.
Having studied the popular ballads of England, Scotland, Denmark, and Spain, it struck me that there were many characteristics common to all, besides many striking differences, owing to varying national conditions.
Professor Sigurd B. Hustvedt, in his admirable work "Ballad Books and Ballad Men", points out (p. 17) that "Although for historical and critical purposes these national variations are not to be ignored, students are pretty much at one in giving a special name to the polyglot popular ballad and in singling it out from lyric and other national genres as a separate type of literature, however the boundaries of the type may be hereafter expanded or contracted, however the type itself may be further defined".
There is less divergence between the two Northern groups of ballads than there is between these and the Spanish group, notably as regards metre. Yet there are traits common to the balladry of Denmark and Spain which betray more direct influence of the conventions of French poésie populaire and poésie courtoise than the more isolated balladry of England and Scotland.
Parallels between English-Scottish and Danish ballads have been drawn by Messrs. Francis James Child and Svend Grundtvig in the introductions to the pieces collected by them; likewise by Professor Sigurd B. Hustvedt in "Ballad Criticism in England and Scandinavia in the 18th Centrury" and in "Ballad Books and Ballad Men". Spanish-Danish parallels have been summarized by H. A. Paludan in an article entitled "Spanske Romancer i Danmark og paa Island" (Edda, Aargang 11, Bind XXII, Hefte 3).
French influence on the popular ballad of Germany, Belgium, and Holland has been traced by Dr. Brouwer: "Das Volkslied in Deutschland, Frankreich, Belgien und Holland" (Groningen dissertation, 1930). That the form of the Danish ballad originated in France has been pointed out by Professor Joh. Steenstrup: „Vore



Folkeviser fra Middelalderen", and Georges Doncieux: "Le Romancéro frangais" indicates several French-Danish parallels in the introductions to the ballads in this collection.
Professor A. Jeanroy: "La Poésie lyrique en France au Moyen Age", maintains that French popular songs were carried abroad by soldiers, sailors, pilgrims, and merchants. Their reception in foreign countries is summarized thus: (p. 125) Ce que la France dédaignait, les étrangers 1'accueillirent; ces formes plus anciennes, qu'en France les lettrés regardaient de haut, mais qui continuaient a vivre dans un milieu plus humble (puisque quelques-unes sont arrivées jusqu'a nous) furent ailleurs cultivées avec autant de faveur que la poésie courtoise; les étrangers ne firent pas, entre celle-ci et sa soeur ainée, une injurieuse distinction: les ostracismes et les engouements provoqués par la mode ne dépassent pas un petit cercle. Tout ce qui venait de France avait alors un prestige souverain; nos voisins, qui chantaient nos chansons ne se demandaient pas si celle-ci ou celle-la était du bel air, tout ce qui venait de France était pour eux du bel air. Aussi, en menie temps qu'ils apprenaient a soupirer selon les régies de la galanterie offcielle, ils continuaient a exploiter de vieux thèmes populaires, auxquelles ils trouvaient même plus de saveur, car ils n'exigeaient pas, pour être goütés, une laborieuse éducation. Nous sommes donc autorisés, pensons-nous, a rechercher a 1'étranger des formes et des genres disparus de notre littérature .
This may be chauvinistic exaggeration; the native hue of balladry is, perhaps, not so sicklied oer with the pale cast of fashion as Prof. Jeanroy would have it. Much work remains to be done before ït can be finally ascertained what is native, what borrowed. As Prof. Hustvedt remarks ("Ballad Books and Ballad Men , p. 20): there is room for numerous technical studies of ballad language, ballad style, ballad measures, ballad structures". I have limited myself to the study of the epithet in the three groups of ballads enumerated, endeavouring to classify them and to give a summing up of their divergence as well as their similarity in the three countries which are dear to me. In the choice and application of the epithet the national characteristics of a people are reflected, and the ballad material of these three countries is rich enough for the drawing of conclusions regarding national propensities.



Epithets play an important part in the structure of the ballad, being like landmarks characterizing ballad country. Their use must have facilitated the memorizing of the poems for recitation, and the hearers probably liked to listen to familiar epithets and other stock phrases occuring over and over again.
There are epithets for every aspect of ballad life, for the scenery, persons, their reactions againt their surroundings, their appearance, their dwellings, and their occupations. I have classed them as follows:
il. The natural world.
2. The heavenly world.
3. The nether world.
£ 4. Persons.
II. Actors: ) 5. Emotions.
f 6. Actions.
( 7. Appearance.
III. Life: ' 8. Habitations.
( 9. Occupations.
In Chapter I, number and verse in Child's collection are indicated.
In Chapter II, number and line in Duran or Primavera are indicated.
In Chapter III, number and verse in Grundtvig's collection are indicated.



CHAPTER I.
The Epithet in English and Scottish Ballads.
j The natural world. In the natural world, the countries of England and Scotland, or more vaguely, the North, are mentioned frequently. Of geographical details, there are rivers, sea, and land, consisting of hills and dales, covered with ling or with forests. A green or a stone to alight on must always be at hand. The vegetable world is represented by the apple, the birch and the briar, the lily flower, the ling, the gowan so gay, the rose, the leaves so green, oak and thorn trees, or simply "trees". The animal world is represented by beasts, birds, boars, bucks, deer, doves, does, eagles, eels, fish, goshawks, hares, horses, lions, roes, and steeds, one parrot, some few worms, and a solitary couple of unicorns. The times of the year are May, summer, or Lammas, the times of day are dawn, morning, evening, night, and midnight. Atmosphere is created by wind and rain, and by the presence of sun, moon, and stars. Fire is frightening, either burning houses or burning culpnts at the
The most popular epithet for England is "fair", occurring in 65B 1, 2; 96A, 2, 7, 9, 19; 192A, 1; 221C, 16; next after "fair" comes 'the epithet "merry" (pleasant, delightful), occuring in 117a, 66, 198; b, 306, 361, 337; 119, 56 has "mery Inglond' ; 174, 16 has "merry England" again, so have 250E, 4 and 284, 4; 108, 20 22 and 159, 27 have "Little England"; 177, 17, 34, 52 has England faire"; 250A, 9 has "for old England", and 254A, 12 also uses the
phrase "old England".
The epithets for Scotland and the Scots are favourable or t e reverse according as they are used in English or Scotch ballads. Amonq the favourable epithets, "fair" is again the most popular:
75A 2 3- 88A 12; 94, 8; 96A, 13, 15; 99A, 5, 12, 17; 101A, 11; 107A, 9; 109A. 33; 266A, 9; 267A, 1; 268, 1; 271, 32, 50. "Scottland ff ree"' occurs in 109A, 44, and "merry Scotland" in 208D, 12. The



Scots praise their compatriots as "brave Scots lads" (206, 6); "our Scots lads"(206, 10); "good Scots lords"(58G, 13); "the little Scott' (99A, 3); "the muckle Scot" (251, 6); "our kind Scots" (157A, 1); "a valiant Scottish knight" (99A, 26), "some brave Scotchman" (101A, 30), "a bony bold Scot" (130A, 2), "a joly stout Scot' (130B, 2), "our kind Scots" (157A, 1), and "bonny Scots" (202, 2). From the English point of view Scotland is twice designated as "fair" (79C, 1, 2ff. 108, 12); while the Lord of Lorne mentions that he was bom in "fayre Scotland, that is so ffar beyond the sea" (271, 61, 83). The term "false Scottlande" occurs in 174, 1. "A proud Scot" occurs in 167A, 6 and in 171, 5, "a cruel Scot" in 180, 2, "the muckle Scot" in 251, 6, and in the same ballad, verses 2 and 25 the same person is called "this weighty Scot", and in verse 35 reference is made to "a black Scot's oath"; 172, 2 speaks of "the Scots both stout and stubborn", so that we may infer that though the Scots were neither liked nor trusted, they were held in a certain respect.
The North country, a typically vague ballad term, is always referred to as "far" (63A, 8; 107A, 73; 145B, 38).
As to the times of the year, May is the favourite, especially the May morning. "The mery month of May" occurs in 84B, 1, "the merry month of May" in 140B, 1 and 231A, 1, while 261, 1, 2 has "early on a May morning", and 293, 1 "into a sweet May morning". Also summer is mentioned "a leve-long summers day" (158, C8); "a fine simmer day" (217D, 15).Lammas time often introducés Scotch ballads, and is indicated as the time "when wightsmen win their hay" (261, 1), "when flowers were fresh and green" (304, 1), "when the leaves were fresh and green" (227, 1)), "whan husbondes winnes ther haye" (161A, 1), "when husbandmen do win their hay" (ib. BI), and "when the muir-men won their hay" (161C, 1).
As to the the times of day, dawn has no special epithet, but morning is "a clear morning" (183A, 3), "the morn, when the day grew light" (185, 28), "a mery morning of May" (116c. 51), "a fayre morning tyde" (ib. 52), "a morning of May" (159, 27), "this fair morning gay" (ib. 45), "early in a morning" (214E, 1), "early in the morning" (223, 12), "in a May morning so gay" (97A, 21),



"early on a May morning" (261, 1), "a sweet May morning (293, 1). The afternoon was probably spent napping after the fatigues of the morning, for it is not mentioned as the scene of action in the ballad world. The evening is to the fore again, however: "a fair evening" (134, 2); "an evening sae saft and sae clear" (217B, 1), "another fair evening" (ib. 7), "an evening fair" (255, 1). Night was a thing to be dreaded on the whole, with the possible exception of "a summer night" (198, 15). In general the night was regarded as a dark and fearsome time: "the night was dark" (76D, 8), "the live-long winter night" (77A, 11), "when nights are lang and mirk" (79A, 5), 'when nights are lang and dark" (ib. BI), "when the nights was long and cool" (ib. D4), "this cauld winter nicht" (93B, 15), "the night became so late" (134, 85), "the nicht will be baith mirk and late" (216B, 1), "tho the nicht were ever sae dark (216B, 3), the night it is baith mist and mirk" (217A, 10), "But dark and misty was the night" (217B, 2), "the misty night" (ib. 9), "a weary night" (222C, 6), "a winter night" (245A, 3), "at night, and the stars gie nae light" (248, 2), "a long winters night (250A, 3), tho the night were dark (253, 15). Midnight was the time when beings from the other world, such as fairies, ghosts and goblins made their appearance: "about the middle of the night" (273, 10), "the merke midnight" (165, 2), "att merke midnight" (187A, 23), just at the mirk and midnight hour" (39A, 26), "about the middle of the night" (ib. 37), ("at the middle watch of the night" (298, 9).
Among the weather phenomena, sunshine, moonlight, starlight, mist, rain, and wind are mentioned.
The sun has no real ballad epithet, perhaps on account of the iarety with which it shines on the British Isles; the ballads merely state that the sun shone (69A, 18), or shone high (218B, 1), while Will Scarlet and John once received such blows from the peddlars that "it made the sun look blue (137, 21). The moon shone bright (48, 2), light (67B, 18), it had a clear light (101A, 3), a lee light (102A, 7), it was a midsummer moon (123A, 1), the moon was clear (161C, 32), the moon shin'd bright (289A, 12). The stars are rarely mentioned, and have no epithets; the same applies to mist and rain. When we come to wind, however, there is a choice



of several: ' the win blew caul" (76D, 8), "the win grew loud" (76D, 28), "the wind was loud" (86A, 4), "the wind it blew hard" (169B, 8), "the wind was rising loud and hie" (186A, 27), "the wind began full loud to blow" (186A, 28), "the wind blows cald and sour" (216B, 2), "the wind blew never sae cald" (216B, 3), "the west wind saft did ble" (222A, 31), "the win is loud" (245, 10), "the wind sae cauld blew south and north" (275A, 2); coldness and loudness seem to have been considered the wind's chief attributes.
Fire is "a hott fyer" (59A, 24), "a fayre fyer" (59A, 14), "a blasing fire" (174, 10), "the fier came flaming" (178B, 13), "the fiercest fire" (196A, 16). An effect of contrast is obtained when during the fire at her castle Lady Forbes exclaims:
"O the frost, and ae the frost,
The frost that freezes feil!"
The sea is generally referred to in the baliads as "salt" or "saut" (59B, 4; 34B, 2; 62B, 1, 2; 93A, 5; 250A, 2; ib. E, 1; 289A, 12; 302, 3). Further we have "the louder roard the sea" (76D, 26), "an the sea grew rough" (76D, 28), "the sea sae wide" (76D, 29), "the green sea" (34A, 7, 9), "the watery main" (250A, 10, "high and stormy be the sea" (253, 9), "when the seas gang dry" (267B, 14), and "the raging seas" (289A, 5). Rivers are generally referred to as "wan water", though we have "a rank river, raging like the sea" in 4H, 4. The "wan water" occurs in 68A, 13; 110B, 7; 114A, 7, 8; B3; C3; 209D, 9; further we find "the broad water" (110A, 8), "this wild water" (123A, 9, 10), "deep water" (123B, 14), "Claid's Water be dip and free of fleed" (216A, 6), "Clyde's water's wide and deep enough" (216B, 4), "the fair water of Tay" (217A, 7, 8), "whan water's strong" (251, 13, 16), and "on the prude waters" (242, 3). Hills and dales are generally mentioned together without epithet, but hills are often qualified as "high" (48, 7; 119, 2; 142A, 7; ib. 8; 214E, 5, 7; 216A, 7, 17; ib. B6; 218B, 1; 249, 21; 255, 13; 258, 9; 266A, 32); there is the "green hill" of the Queen of the Fairies in 39A, 23, and a green hill which has nothing to do with fairies, down which Little John came tripping in 126, 29; "the hills soe browne" occur in 142A, 7; "the westlin



hills" in 223, 17; "the Hieland hills" in 225B, 6, 7, 8), also in 227, 9; 237, 17; and 258, 9; "yon hill sae bonny" occurs in 227, 11, "yon pleasant hills" in 243F, 13, where it is added that "yon are the hills of Heaven", and "yon lang hill" occurs in 249, 9 and in 255, 12.
Woods and forests are frequently mentioned in the ballads, especially the "merry greenwood of the Robin Hood ballads. (52A, 2, 4; 83B, 3, 4; 118, 6; 123A, 21; 131, 14; 133, 31; 138, 27; 147, 24; 150, 5); "guid" or "gude" greenwood is second in favour (41A, 49; 43A, 13; 82, 7; 83D, 6, 7; 90A, 3; 101A, 3, 17, 18; 102A, 16, 17; B2; 114b, 5; 266A, 25, B2; 282, 14, 25; 302, 4, 5); there is "bonny greenwood in 43B, 1, 2; gay greenwoods in 132, 13, 14; and "the gay greene wood in 154, 38. Wood pure and simple is called "thys wylde wode" (116c. 8); "shawes been sheene" in 118, 1; "a little wood" occurs in 134, 50, and in the thick wood in ib., 84; "an outwood" in 140A, 8; "in woods and forests thick (154, 113); finally there is the poetical "silver wood" of "Child Maurice" (83A, 7, 8, 14, 19, 23, 24). Forests have the alliterative epithets of "fair" and "fresh": "to the forest fresh and gay" (31, 32); "a fair forest" (305A, 1); "a forest fair" (305A, 15); „the fairest forest" (305A, 20); "fair Ettrick forest" (305A, 40); there is a "wild forest" (292, 2). A tree is the greenwood was used by Robin Hood as his "trusty", "tristil", or "tortyll" tree (116b. 95, 98. 102; 117b. 274, 298, 286; 387, 412; 119, 37; 121, 56; 122A, 2, 21; 145A, 37; 273, 4); the term "greenwood tree" occurs in 5A, 2; 117a. 79; 117b. 237, 262, 310, 312, 328; 119, 2; 138, 2, 7. The birch is a great favourite, and conveniently alliterates with "bonny"; "bonny birk" (77G, 1); "where birk grew fair eneugh" (79A, 6); "a bowing birk" (96A, 4, 7); "of hazel and green birch" (155N, 15); "where birks bobs bonny" (195A, 6); "where birks they be bonny" (195B, 8). The birch is mentioned in conjunction with the hazel in 161A, 67: "byrch and hazel graye" and in 162A, 57: "birch and hazel so graye". The oak and the holly are the only other trees deserving special mention: "beneath a green oak tree" (90A, 7, 20); "beneath the green oak tree" (102B, 18, 23); "by yon green oak tree (103A, 45); "a staff of ground-oak" (125, 12); "of oke so free" (126, 15); "below a green aik tree"; holly is invariably charac-



terized as "green"; "amang the hollins green" (50, 11); 'and a greene hollen" (31, 15); "a greene holly tree" (31, 33); "the greene hollin" (305, A3, 18, 31).
Flowers are in great favour: "the fairest flowers" (5A, 8); "and the norlan flowers spring bonny" (20B, refrain); fine flowers in the valley" (25A, refrain); "the blue flowers and the yellow (ibid); "flowers are fresh and gay" (123B, 1); the fairest flower (97A, 22); "when flowers are fresh and green" (304, 1); used metaphorically we find "The fair Flower of Northumberland" (9); "the flower into my bower" (253, 29); "the summer flowers (219, 7); "fhou wanton flower (9, A25). The lily occurs again and again, usually as a metaphor for a maiden: "my lily flower" (41A, 52); "Lillie Flower" (90A, 2, 4, 8); "Lily Flower" (102A, 2, 68); "as white's the lily flower" (261, 3); "a lily leesom thing" (262, 2); "my lily flower" (264, 23); "as white as lily flower" (271, 26); "my lily flower" (300, 21); "my lily flower" (301, 1, 15); "ye lily flower" (253, 27), The primrose is mentioned in 47A, 10 as "the first flower". Gowans are "gay" (21A, refrain). Roses are red or "doublé": "red rose lip" (103A, 19, 20); "as red as any rose" (105, 8); "the roses that be so red" (112A, 3); "like the roses red" (114D, 13); "a rose soe redd" (166, 2); "to pu the red rose and the thyme" (5A, 50); "a bonny red rose" (7B, 10); "for to bear the red rose company" (14A, 6, 10); "a doublé rose (39A, 5, 19); "with the doublé rose and the Machey" (28, refrain); further there is "a sweet rose" (75A, 10); "her virgin rose " (253, 3).
In the animal world, birds occupy a prominent position; they sing as an accompaniment to the action, they herald the spring and summer, they miraculously speak, they are even mournful when the occasion demands it: "as blythe's a bird in spring" (39A, 39); "the bonnie, bonnie bird" (49A, 9); "the thristlecock is the bonniest bird" (47A, 10); "she harped the small birds off the briers" (49B, 10); "the birds sang sweet as ony bell" (59B, 1); "out and spak the bonny bird" (68A, 7, 20); "light down my bonny bird" (68A, 9); "spak the wily bird" (68C, 11, 18); "spak the bonie bird" (68G, 3); "my bonie bird" (68G, 4); "a bonny birdie (82, 1), (83, 1); "bonny bird's song" (96A, 8); "my bonny bird's song" (96E, 15); "that bonny bird" (97B, 1); "the small birds song"



(118, 1); "as merry as bird on bough" (122A, 1); "the sweet nightingale" (150, 12); "a courtly bird" (253, 19, 21 ); "the pretty bird" (254A, 5); "wee bird" (ib. 6); "poor bird" (ib. 10); "when een-birds sang" (269A, 3); "a bird o high degree' (270, 30); "a flock o pretty birds" (270, 35, 40); "yon gentle redbreast" (292, 13); „mournful birds" (292, 24); "as blythe's a bird on tree" (300, 3); "the dow it is a gentle bird" (46A, 10); "a sprightly doo" (270, 2).
Beasts are of a savage nature: "a savage beast" (34A, 4); 'this fiery beast" (34B, 6); "the wicked beast" (34B, 8); "those fierce wild beasts" (55, 14); "the wild beasts" (55, 16); "a grype and grimly beast" (59A, 19, 31).
The wildest animal after the vague "beast" was undoubtedly the boar: "like a wild boar" (126, 18); "two wild boars" (126, 19); "as breeme as any bore" (159, 19); "a beast men called a bore" (166, 4).
Various kinds of deer abound in the greenwood ballads, especially in those dealing with Robin Hood and his companions, who liked a dish of venison for their supper. Bucks were much sought after: "the best buck" (128, 6); "a good fat buck" (129, 1; 131, 3; 149, 30); "good bucks" (149, 32); "fat bucks" (162B, 8); "the fattest buck" (32, 3); "better bucklings" (304, 21). The red, the dun and the fallow deer are mentioned frequently: "fat falyf deer" (155, 4); "the fattest der" (115, 5); "fatte falowe deer" (116a, 117); "the fatte venison" (117, 393b); ' the donne dere (177b, 417); "the doune dere" (117b, 446); "the good red deer" (122B, 24); "the fat fallow deer" (125, 27); "the good red deer" (126, 3); "a good dun deer" (114A, 6); 'the dun deer (ib, 7); the dandoo and the roe" (114C, 7); "ding the dun deer doun" (114D, 2, 6); "the fallow deer" 148, 2, 13); "the wild deere and the tame" (267A, 13); "the deer rins wild' (161C, 13); "the nimble deere (162B, 10); "the tender deere" (162B, 11); "my fallow deere" (162B, 18); "of the fallow deere' (66C, 19); 'a good, fat deer (144, 3); "my dun deer s shins (282, 27). The doe is wild: that wild doe (292, 7); "as wilde as any doe" (295, Al); so is the roe: "the roe fuil rekeles ther she rins". Venison is used both in the sense of "deer" and in the modern sense: Or why do you kill the king s



venson?" (144, 6); "where venison sweet they had to eat" (150, 16); "with venison fat and good" (154, 38).
The lion is recognized as strong and bold: "and then a lion bold" (39A, 32); "first came the lovely lion" (55, 16); "a lion of mickle mayne" (61, 44).
Unicorns are only mentioned in two ballads: "twa unicorns are fair to see" (305A, 2); "twa unicorns were bra to see" (ib. 17); "twa unicorns sae bra to see" (ib. 30); these unicorns may be meant to be statues. The unicorn in "The Rose of England (166) is a symbol for Sir John Savage.
Fishes are twice mentioned with an epithet: "salt fishes" (47A, 12); "a dish of sma fishes" (12B, 3).
Horses are generally referred to as "steeds", and the favourite colour is "milk-white"; instances abound: 9C, 3; 37A, 6; 43B, 9; 46B, 6; 62B, 4; 83D, 1; 87B, 10; 88B, 17, 18; 89B, 9; 103A, 48; 110A, 23, B5; 143, 15; 208D, 3; 217 A3, 17; 222A, 30; 229A, 7; 240A, 10; 206A, 8. There are other epithets too: "her wanton steed" (9A, 22); "my red-roan steed" (13B, 2); "her steed was of the dapple grey" (37C, 2); "my good steed" (81B, 4); "his gallant steed" (262, 25). Black, brown, and grey steeds also occur; :no piebalds or chestnuts: "a bonny black" (190, 16, 20); "O saddle me the black, the black" (65A, 25); "Go saddle me the black, the black" (91A, 24); "Gar saddle me the black" (209D, 8); "Gae saddle me the blacke, blacke steed" (200A, 9); "Go saddle to me the black" (200B, 13); "Gae saddle me the black, the black" (298, 12); "he mounted on his coal-black steed" (216B, 5); "my bonny black horse" (228A, 2); "Go saddle me the black horse" (237, 4); "some rode on the black and grey" (198, 8); "some mounted the black steed, and some mounted the brown" (64A, 20);
Go saddle me the brown" (91A, 24); "The brown was neer sae bonny" (209D, 8); "The brown rides never so speedie" (200B, 13); "and you'11 ride on the grey" (237, 4); "go saddle me the grey" (237, 4); "his steed was lovely brown" (74B, 1); "he was a bonny brown" (74B, 21); "King Henry's wanton brown" (193A, 1); "he mounted the brown" (229A, 19); "the brown and a' that's speedie" (254A, 12); "bonny grissell" (169B, 20, 23); "his grey sae fine" (187B, 10); "My good grey mare" (ib. 34); "that grey mare"



(188A, 27); "his fringed grey" (189, 5); "some rode on the black and grey" (198, 8); "a gay grey mare" (44, 11); "a grey steed" (75D, 1); "a gray courser" (117a, 76); "his dapple grey" (122B, 30); "on a dapple-grey" (143, 15); "on his dapple-grey" (143, 24); "Robin Hood's father's grey gelding" (149, 9); "a gude grey mare" (192A, 3); "the grey mare was right and swift of fit" (ib. 14); "my gude grey steed" (209A, 4); "my good gray nagie" (228A, 2).
The goshawk and the greyhound were held in high esteem: "gay goshawks" (32, 11, 12); "gay goss-hawk" (43A, 11); "gray goshawks" (73C, 20); "gay goss-hawk" (96A, 1, E, 1); "gay gosshawk" (89A, 22, 23, 24; 270, 30). "The gallant greyhounds" (162B, 7); "my grey hounds" (7A, 3); "my greyhound" (13A, 4, 5); "your good grey-hounds (32, 9); a gude grey-hound (44, 10); "my greyhounds head" (51, A8); thy greyhounds
bluid" (51A, 9).
The term "with hawk and hound" is found frequently without
epithets.
2. The Heavenly World. The Christain idea of Heaven preponderates over the heathen idea of Elfland or Fairyland in the ballads. In one instance, "Thomas Rhymer (37), the hero mistakes the Queen of Elfland for the Queen of Heaven, but that is a trait borrowed from the romance of Ogier le Danois and Morgan le Fay. The colour of green is an attribute of the world of fairies: the mysterious "Greene Knight in king Arthur and Cornwall (30, 55, 59, 68, 74), Alison Gross, blows a grass-green horn (30, 8); the Queen of Elfland wears a skirt of "grass-green silk" when visiting Thomas Rhymer (37A, 2), and gives him a pair of shoes "of velvet green" (37A, 16); in version C "her mantle was of velvet green" (37C, 3); she takes him to "a garden green" (ib. 11), where she does not allow him to "pu an apple", but tells him to let that green flourishing be" (ib. 12); the "Wee Wee Man" conducts the poet to "yon bonny green" (38A, 5), and shows him the fairies riding, "a' clad out in green"; in "Tam Lin' the Queen of Fairies had caught Tamet "in yon green hill to dweil (39A, 23); the mermaid in "Clerk Colvill" had a "sleeve so green"; Young Tam



Lin is described as 'an elfin grey" while dwelling with the Queen of the Fairies, and he declares that "pleasant is the fairy land". These instances are all from early ballads, for later the word "heathen" occurs in an unfavourable sense: "ye heathen knight" (104, Al, 2, etc.), "ye heathenish dog" (ib. B 3, 4, 5, etc.), "the Pagans curst" (154, 55), "the heathen soldan" (177, 53, 54, 55, 59, 63).
Heaven is conceived as a high place: "Hewene ys heyer than ys the tre" (IA, 15); "heaven's high" (20C, 10); "the heaven hee" 37C, 14); "heaven's higher than the tree" (46A, 13); 'heaven fiigher than thae trees" (ib. B, 17); "in the heavens high" (77B, 7); "in the heavens above" (79D, 3); "my bed is in the heaven high" (261, 23).
The main personage in Heaven is God, whose aid is often invoked in the ballads, especially in the Robin Hood ballads: "bi dere worthy God" (117a, 36, 37); "by God that made me" (ib. 47); "God that sitteth in heaven above" (ib. 48); "God that dyed on tre" (ib. 62); "By God Almyght" (ib. 74); "by God that bought me dere" (117b, 92); "by God that made me" (ib. 100); "God that dyed on a tree" (ib. 110); "dere worthy God" (ib. 111); "God, that was of a mayden born" (ib. 112); "God that made us all" (114); "dere worthy God" (117a, 343); "By deare God" (118, 2); "God, that is ever a crowned kyng" (119, 90); "God in heaven soe hye" (120A, 23); "Almighty God" (271A, 4).
Jesus Christ is referred to as: "sweet Jesus" (79C, 1, 12) and "Jhesu most of might" (161A, 70), besides as "God that dyed on a tree" as mentioned above.
The Virgin is "mary, that myckel maye" (161A, 42); "mild Marye" (177, 25); "Mary mild" (ib. 29, 44); "mylde Marye" (119, 7, 35); "our Blessed Lady" (57, 6); "our derë Lady" (117a, 65); "Our Lady is the trewest woman" (117b, 249); "dere Lady" (118, 39); "our Lady deere" (118, 40); "For Our dear Ladie's sake" (147, 5); "our Lady that meikle may" (302, 6).
A number of saints are mentioned: "good St. John" (21A, 7); "by swete Saint John" (116b, 102); "be swete Seynt John" (119, 88). "For sweet St. Francis sake" (276A, 13). The other saints of the calendar are mentioned without epithets, so that we may



infer that St. John and St. Francis were favourites. Yet in English and Scottish ballads. St. John's Eve is never mentioned as the time of action, while it is frequently the case in Spanish "romances". The holy days that are mentioned repeatedly in English and Scotch ballads are Christmas, Halloween, Lammas, and Martinmas: "a royall Christmasse" (31, 3); "the hallow days of Yule" (72A, 16); "the hallow days o Yule" (79B, 1); "About Yule, when the wind blew cule" (94, 1); "upo the good Yule-day" (300, 17); "halloween, when the seely court was ridin by" (35, 12); "the Lamasse tyde, whan husbondes wynnes ther haye (161, Al); the Lammas time, when husbandmen do win ther hay" (ib. BI); "the Lammas time, when the muir-men won their hay" (ib. Cl); the Lambmass tide, when the leaves were fresh and green" (227, 1); "the Lammas time, when wightsmen won their hay" (262, 1); about the Martinmass, when nights are lang and mirk" (79A, 5); 'the Martinmas time, when the green leaves were a falling" (84A, 1); 'at Martynmas, v/hen wether waxed cold" (178A, 1); about the Martinmas time, when the wind blew snell and cauld" (ib. Fl); 'the Martinmass time, when the wind blew shrill and cald (ib. Hl); about the Martinmass, when steads were fed wi corn and hay" (190A, 1).
The church was held in great reverence: "the good church' (41A, 48); "to guid church" (ib. 50); "in good kirk-door" (66B, 18); "in gude church-yard (102B, 27); "to huly chapel (103A.3); ' three of the best churches" (142A, 11).
The tolling of the church-bells is mentioned: "the evening bells" (70A, 4); "the morning bells" (83A, 8); the dead-bell (84A, 8); "the dead-bell' (84A, 8); "the dead-bell" (84A, 8; 96A, 17); "eenbells" (269A, 3).
Of the ecclesiastics, bishops, priests, monks and friars occur, with varying epithets: the good Lord Bishop (191A, 1, 10); thou false bishop" (ib. 11); "the old Bishop" (ib. 22); "a proud bishop" (143, 3); "thou cuckoldly bishop" (143, 18); "a noble priest (145B, 26); "two lusty priests" (147, 4); "a popish priest" (264, 3); "two black monkes" (117b, 213); "a gret-headed munk" (119, 19); "the Curtal Friar" (123); "that cutted friar" (147, 23); "a faithlesse fryer".
Whether dreams, ghosts and giants were sent from the heavenly



or the nether world is hard to decide; as they invariably have an unpleasant character I shall class them with the latter.
3. The nether world. Dreams in the ballads are sad in themselves, and forbode sad events: "a dreary dream" (88B, 6, 10; 161C, 20, 26; 102A, 12: 214A, 1, 3; 253, 12); "such dreams are never good" (74A, 8); "they never do prove good" (ib. 9); "that seldom comes to good" (ib. B, 11); "sweauens are swift" (118, 4); "a dolefu dream" (214E, 10); "her drussie dream' (216A, 14); "God read a' dreams to gued" (216A, 14); "O read ill dreams to guid!" (262, 20).
Ghosts are just as dreadful as dreams: "a griesly ghost" (31, 4); 'Margaret's grimly ghost" (74B, 7); " a grieved ghost" (77F, 2); "a gurious ghost" (99A, 31); "twa grisly ghosts" (251, 21); "great and grievous was the ghost (255, 13); wan and weary was the ghost" (255, 14); "like a wandering ghost" (269A, 3).
Giants only occur in two ballads: "a giant that was both stiffe
and strong upon his squier fiue heads he bare, Unmackley
made was ne (61, 30); the second is indicated more vaguely as "a proud giant" (304, 22, 32).
Witches likewise occur only twice: "That vile rank witch of vilest kind (6, 5, 12, 21): so like and old witch looks she" (143, 12).
Heil is a deep place: "Helle ys dypper than ys the sea" (IA, 15); Heil is deeper than the sea (IA, 16); Heil is deeper nor the sea (IC, 14); Heil is deep (20C, 11); Heli's deeper than the sea" (46A, 13); "Heli's deeper than the seas" (ib. B, 17); "in the lowest heil" (261, 23).
The Devil only occurs as a personage in the facetious song "The Farmers Curst Wife": "good Satan" (278A, 4); "old Satan" (ib. 9); the auld Deil (ib. B, 4, 9); "a wee reekit deil" (ib. B, 7).
We can conclude that the natural world played by far the most important for the ballad maker; Heaven was invoked pretty often, and Heil was a distant threat.



4. Persons. &• Family relationships.
b. Ranks of society.
c. Professions.
a. The relationships that play the most important part in the ballads are: father, mother, son, daughter, brother, sister, and the tincle-nephew relation. Fathers are of the formidable type, and are usually referred to respectfully as "dear" or "old", however un~ kindly they treat their offspring, and however unlxkely ït is that they should be really old when dealing with young marriageable dauqhters: "her father dear" (70A, 11); "dear father" (73C, 6); "her father dear" (73B, 4); "your father dear' (100A, 2); my owne father" (180, 8); "an aged father" (202, 5); my father dear" (211, 14; 214E, 14; 227, 28); "her auld father (229A, 8); "honoured father" (237, 7); "her father dear" (259, 6); "my royal father" (288A, 8); "my father dear" (294A, 8); her auld father (298, 3); "father dear" (303, 8); "his father dear (304, 8, 14);
"auld father" (ib. 31). ,, ,,,
Mothers are likewise "dear" and "old", occasionally good : 'your mither gueede" (5A, 10); "my dear mother'' (41A 17); my mither and sister dear" (ib. 35); "dear mother (73B:2, 8): h.s fase mither" (76D, 9); "my mother dear y9K 12; 91A. 5 . "his old mother" (85B, 1); "my mother dear (87A, 2; 90A, 19), "her dear mother" (91A, 29); "my dear mother" (149, 7); my mither dear" (155A, 15); "my mither deir" (ib. BI 3); your own dear mother" (ib. N13, 14); "his auld mither (210B, 2 ; mother dear" (ib. C3); "Lizzie's own mother (226A, 11); my mither, she is an auld dey" (226B, 9); "my guid auld honest mither" (ib. 23); "my mother dear" (227, 12, 13 23; 264 12, ). "her lady mother" (247, 3); "mother dear" (289A, 11); his mothe
dear" (304, 10). ti ,, .
Sons are referred to as "young", "bonny , and where old .s a
term of endearment, often as auld , even in thecaseo in an s, probably meaning "eldest": "a bonny young son (5A, 73; 6A « . ' young son" (76D, 6, 10, 29; 64A, 29); "your auld son (64B, 7 . "your young son" (93A, 25); "his pretty young son "his bonny young son" (101A, 25); "her bonny young son (102A.



13); her eldest son (103A, 5); "her youngest son" (ib. 8); "a bonny young son" (ib. 35); "young son" (KMA, 6, 8); "bonny young son" (ib. 10); "her young son" (15A, 32); "his auld son" (ib. B, 3, 8, 9); "her young son" (54B, 14; 62A, 6); "bonny young son" (203A, 29); "yer young son" (ib. 5); "my auld son" (264A,
4); "my young son" (ib. 20); "my bonny young son" (ib. 22, 24); "his bonny young son" (265, 2; 229A, 3); "her little young son" (229A, 7); "mother's son" (242, 16); "her wee young son" (243D,
5); "her young son" (253, 4); "her little son" (270, 25); "my loving son (288A, 9); my eldest son" (293A, 5); "my youngest son" (ib. BI); "my ain dear son" (300, 15); "his lovely son" (304, 14).
Daughters are usually "dear": "my dear daughter (41A, 30); "my daughter dear" (ib. 34, 36); "the king's young daughter" (52A, 1); "my deere daughter" (60, 12); "my daughter deere" (61, 2); "his ae daughter (97A, 1); the king's ae daughter" (99A, 2); "our daughter dear" (ib. 30); "my daughter dear" (102A, 11), the bayliff s daughter dear (105, 1,5); our daughter dear (129, 33); "the youngest Duke's daughter" (155N, 3); "my douchter dear" (214E, 13); "my a dather" (216A, 15); "my ae doughter" (217B, 3); "my dear daughter" (226B, 16; 227, 27); "my dochter dear" (233A, 13); "dear dochter Jeanie" (238A, 10); "daughter dear" (244, 7, 9); "Bailie's ae dochter" (254A, 1); "a daughter fair and bright"(272, 2); "my daughter dear"(304, 46, 47).
The word uncle is mentioned twice with the epithet "dear": "dear uncle" (149, 22) and "uncle dear" (251, 30). The word nephew is rarely used, sister's son being preferred: "Bauld fourand twenty sisters sons (169C, 15); "my ain dear sister's son" (161C, 24); his own sisters son (128, 19): "my own dear sisters fon" (ib. 23); "my mother's own sister's son" (132, 15); "my eldest sisters son (247, 12). The word cousin is occasionally used to denote "nephew": "my cuzen Gawaine so gay, My sister's sonne be ye" (30, 1).
Brothers, besides being "dear", are sometimes "bold": "my ae brother" (34B, 6); "her brother dear" (5lA, 3); "the boldest brether (60, 1); deere brother" (ib. 34); "thy ae brother" (88A, 2); "my bold brothers" (91A, 20); "my deere brother" (107A, 7); "your only brother" (66A, 22); "sworn-brethren" (211, 37); "my



cruel brother" (214A, 2); "my brother dear" (233A, 17); "three bold brothers" (250A, 19); "your ae brother" (253, 31).
Sisters are "dear", and also "sweet", or "silly": "his bonny sister" (50, 11); "your, sister dear" (74A, 15); silly sisters seven (91A, 1); "kind sister" (149, 14); "his sweet sisters" (210A, 3); "sister dear" (233A, 19, 20); "sister of my own" (246A, 4); "your one sister" (ib. 28); "my own sister" (292, 6); "cruel her sister (292, 18).
The step-mother once has the epithet "wicked", which quahty is usually clear from the context: "a wicked step-mother"(103B, 51).
The rnother-in-law is called "good-mother" (a parallel to the French "belle-mère"): "his gude-mother" (87A, 10); "my goodmother" (254A, 19); "her goodmother's yetts" (232A, 9).
A brother-in-law is likewise indicated as "good-brother : goodbrother John" (214E, 9), white the foster-brother relationship occure as "sworn-brother : sworn-brethren (211, 37).
The tribal sense is strong, and fathers have a strong sense of ownership over their daughters, or, as Prof. Hart puts it, are directly opposed to the love relation .1)
A special place among family relations is occupied by the bride: "his lovely bride" (1A, 21); "that bride soe bright of blee" (31, 1); "that bride soe bright in bower" (ib. 2); "a braw bride" (62A, 1, 2 3 4); "my brisk bride" (ib. 10); "my bright bride" (ib. El, B2); "my bierly bride" (ib. E19); "this bonny bride" (64A, 18); "my bonnie bride" (66B, 7); "your buirlie bride" (ib. 8); "his bonnie bride" (ib. 12); "the bierly bride" (66C, 24); "the nut-browne bride" (73A, 4); "the browne bride" (73B, 15); the nit-browne bride" (ib. C24); "his sweet bride" (149, 50); "his bonnie bride (210C 3); "the bonnie bried" (215, 11); bonny bride (221B, 11, 14; C8); "my beautiful bride" (226B, 27); "a very bonnie bride" (236A, 9); "the bonnie bride" (254A, 15).
The bridegroom only twice has an epithet allotted to him: yon braw bridegroom" (254A, 16); "the bonnie bridegroom" (256, 4).
Later, the bride became the "wedded wife" or "wedded fere , and the bridegroom the "wedded lord": "a wedded fere" (116c. 5);
i) Note: (Ballad and Epic, p. 11).



"like a true wedded wife" (ib. 14); "my wedded wife" (208A, 7, D5; 224A, 4, 5, 10; 224B, 3, 4, 10; 275A, 6; 226A, 7; 300, 22; 301, 16); "the wedded man" (116c. 6); "my wedded lord" (87A, 13); "thy wedded lord" (260A, 12).
Weddings were occasions for much rejoicing: "this proud wedding" (60, 45); "that rich wedding" (73A, 13); "a rich wedding (74A, 2); the good and honourable marriage" (66A, 31); gat fair wedding' (103A, 38); "this merry wedding" (138, 27); "my bonnie wedding-day" (235A, 14); "a merry wedding" (238B, 13).
b. Ranks of society. Persons of high rank are favoured; kings, queens, earls, barons, knights, ladies, and pages occur in profusion; the merchant class is almost entirely ignored, churl is a term of abuse, and the outlaw was a source of romantic inspiration.
A king was conceived as a noble person: 'a comely king" (30, 22); "noble king Arthur" (ib. 6, 23); "anoynted king" (ib. 34);
the king that wears a crown (94, 8); 'if I were a king and wore a crown" (112A, 2); "our comly kynge" (117b. 353, 379, 388, 410, 431); "my lege kynge" (119, 55); "our cumly kyng" (119, 84); "God, that is ever a crowned kyng" (119, 90); "for good King Richard's sake" (151, 16); "thy sovereign king" (151, 31); "my good king" (153, 11); "the Scottish king" (154, 83); "the English king" (158, 9); "his Majesty" (206B, 14); "a noble king" (209A, 8, 9, 11); our king" (220A, 1, 2); "a very great king, And a king of meikle fame' (269A, 1); "the king himself" (249, 5); "my leege and my king" (284, 4); "our king" (287, 7); "our royal king of England" (ib. 11); "a king that weareth a crown" (288A, 5); "not a king, not lord of a crown" (ib. 6); "our noble king" (305A, 5); the noble king" (ib. 7, 14, 34); "a king with a crown" (ib. 44).
Queens were worthy partners of kings: "the goodly Queene Gueneuer" (29, 4); "our comely queen" (59A, 2, 14); "the queen hersell (89A, 10); our lawful queen ' (ib. 31); "as fresh as a queen" (138,27); "our noble queen's face" (146, 17); "my gracious queen (ib. 20); our guidly queen (182B, 2); "our royal queen" (ib. 12); our Scottish queen (253, 23); "a queen o wealth and state" (270, 11); "a queen birth and high degree" (300, 6).



Earls do not occur so frequently: "guid Earl o Bran (7A, 1); "a worthy earl's son" (69A, 15); "the noble earl of Mar" (270, 1);
"the young earl of Essex" (288A, 6).
Barons are "bold" or "brave": "Barons that were both stiffe and stoure" (31, 2); "a bolde baron" (117a, 6); barons bold (144. 11)- "the brave baronne" (203A, 5); "the bravest baronne" (ib. 22); "the brave baron" (ib. B, 13, 14); "your brave barons blood (ib. 19); "many a bold barone" (60, 32); the bold baron (83 ,
17); "the bauld baron" (83F, 23).
Knights occur with great frequency: "a knight of noble blood (IA, 2); "the elphin knight" (2A, 1); "the fause knight" (3A, 1): "an elf-knight" (4A, 1); "this forlome knight" (9A, 14); o false and faithlesse knight" (9A, 28); "two gallant knights" (ib. 31); "courteous knights" (9A. 32); "a false knight" (ib. 33); the Greene Knight" (30, 53, 55, 59); "a curteous knight" (31. 7); "that gentle knight" (ib. 32); "the knights, both more and lesse (ib. 57); an auld grey knight" (39, 11); "an earthly knight" (ib. 15); "sae mony unco knights" (ib. 27); "a naked knight" (ib. 35); "the bemest knight" (ib. 41); "a gallant knight" (47A, 2); "a gentle knight (ib. E, 4); "as brave a knight as ever saild the sea" (53C, 3); an eldern knicht" (58A, 2); "a right good knight" (59A, 9. 16); 'a rich knight" (ib. 10); "a knight soe keene" (ib. 39); never so curteous a knight" (63A, 11, 12); "that sakeless knight (68A, 22, 23); "a curtous young night" (75A. 7); a courteous young knicht" (ib. B, 8); "twenty four good knights" (80, 23); her own, wed knight" (ib. 26); "ye gentle knight" (82, 2); "four and twenty armed knights" (88A, 5); "brave knights' wives (91A, 1); as brave a knight As ever saild the sea" (99A. 1); "a heathen knight _ (104A, 1); "a young knights bride" (106, 2); a courteous kmg t (110A, 1); "a courteous young knight" (ib. 3); The courteous kniqht" (ib. 9); "a courteous knight" (112A, 1); "gentyl khyght (117a, 24); "hendë kniyght and fre" (ib. 25); the knyght is true inowe" (ib. 43); "thou false knight" (ib. 113); "the knight is true and truste" (ib. 207); "thou gentill knight so fre" (ib. b 274); "thou gentill knight and trewe" (ib. 277); "thou traytour knight (ib. a. 319); "knyghtes in grete araye" (ib. b. 354); a fayre olde knight" (ib. 362); "an old knights delight" (138, 10); a wealt y



knight" (ib. 18); "a knight full good" (145A, 22); "a trusty and worthy knight" (153, 4); "the knight, both hardy and bold" (ib. 14); "the noblest knight een Scotland could afford" (208A, 2); "that stubborn knight" (214E, 8); "the gentle knicht" (256, 7); "a finer knight" (265, 16); "a wealthy knight" (268, 2); "the fairest knight" (220A, 4); "the bravest knight" (ib. B4); "a knicht o noble degree" (226B, 16); "knichts o hie degree" (229A, 1); "that gallant knight" 232B, 3); "a knight o wealth and might" (253, 31); "baith noble knights and squires" (304, 23); "as well dressed a knight as ony" (ib. 33); "the knight and his lady in purple clad" (305, 19).
The knight's companion is the lady: "a gentle lady" (5A, 16); "a lady gay" (ib. 68); "o kind lady" (7A, 4); "his lady gay" (ib. 32); "this lady good" (7F, 5); "that ladie bright" (11A, 12); "a lady gay" (37A, 1); "a lady fine" (38, 5); "his gay lady" (42B, 4); "my bonnie lady (46A, 3); "that fayre ladye" (60, 69); "this bonnie lady" (48, 29); "a braw Irish ladie" (24B, 4, 5); "a gay lady" (69B, 1); "four and twenty gay ladies" (96A, 6); "a gay ladye" (87A, 1); "his gay ladie" (305A, 9, 14, 23, 43).
Footpages were always at the beek and call of the high-born "your little footpage" (67A, 19); "his litle foote-page" (80, 7); "thou litle foote-page" (81B, 2); "thou little ffoot-page" (83A, 3); "his little foot-page (90A, 1); "her little foot-page" (91C, 6); "the prettiest ffoot-page" (63A, 24); "bonny boy" (5A, 15; 41A, 26: 65A, 18; 66A, 10; 89B, 11; 90A, 14; 99A, 7; 161B, 4; Cl7; 222A, 21; 229A, 9; 245A, 19; 269A, 9); "a bony lad" (232B, 9); "a littel boy" (245A,4); "a bony boy" (ib. 11, 13); "little wee boy" (251, 11); "his little boy" (253, 13); "bonny laddie" (280A, 4); "a little wee boy" (300, 5). These boys perform the same functions as the "liden smaadreng" in Danish ballads and the "pajecito" in Spanish romances.
"A rich merchant" is mentioned in 24B, 1, "a rich merchant's vessel is cast away" in 250A, 9; "we are the rich merchants of England" is declared in 250E, 4; Jock the Leg sat with a "merry merchant" in a tavern-house (282, 1). Merchants could not rise higher than to wealth and mirth.
Churls were regarded with disgust: "old churl" (140B, 12); "a cankred carle" (142A, 9); "a crookt carril" (142B, 10); "thou



crooked carel" (ib. 11); "thou crooked carle" (157A, 11); the surly auld carl" (248, 3).
The glamour of romance cast a halo over the person of the outlaw: "so perelous outlawes" (116c. 141); "a prude outlaw ' (117a, 2); "so curteys an outlaw" (ib.); "the outlawes stronge" (ib. 324); "the wylde outlawes" (ib. b. 44); off a flase outlay (199, 42); "that ffals outlay' (ib. 143); the ffals outlay (121, 57); a bold outlaw" (127, 9); "the bravest outlaws" (128, 25); "those bold outlawes" (136, 5); "bolde outlawes" (137, 10); "thy bold outlawes" (145A, 36); "of a bould outlaw" (148, 1); "these outlaws stout" (152, 6); "that brave outlaw" (153, 8); "these outlaws bold" (154, 63); "yon bra outlaw" (305A, 8); "gude outlaw" (ib. 21); "the outlaw keene" (ib. 27, 57).
c. Professions, trades and occupations: of these, plenty are mentioned in the baliads: Archer, beggar, blacksmith, harper, judge, kitchen-boy, leech, midwife, nurse, palmer, pedlar, porter, ranger,
robber, sailor, and sheriff.
The archer or bowman, who was often a member of the outlaw class, was greatly admired: "an archer good ynough" (116 c. 3); "his best archers" (ib. 143); "the best archers of the north (ib. b. 283); "the bold archer" (ib. 283); "were archers good and fre (ib. 293); "these archers fayre and good" (ib. 294); "gode archers ynowe" (ib. a. 326); "many a bolde archere" (ib. b. 375); "a good archer" (118, 23); "an archer good enoughe" (ib. 30); "archares that weren godde" (121, 46); "half a hundred bold archers" (122, A24); "Robin Hood that archer good" (ib. BI); a good archer to be" (123B, 2); "an archer as well as the best" (125, 36); 'a hundred bold archers brave" (133, 27); 'archers three, of hie degree" (137, 2); "these archers good" (ib. 3); "the archer good (142B, 22); "that archer good" (143, 2); "the flower of archery" (145, A4, 36); "Robin Hood that archer good" (146, 3); no archer was like him so good" (153, 154, epitaph); "this famous archer" (154, 87); "a noble bowman" (167A, 14); "four and twenty bold bowmen" (282, 18); "your best bowmen" (ib. 20); your best bowmen" (120A, 2); "jolly bowmen" (125, 4); "his stout bowmen (ib. 23); "brave bowmen bold" (143, 16).
Beggars are bold and stout fellows: "of the stoutest beggars



(105A, 61); a jolly beggar" (133, 5); "the bonny beggar (ib. 10); "a beggar brave and stout" (ib. 17); "thou bold beggar" (ib. 25); "the bold beggar" (134, 9); "a silly poor beggar" (ib. 58); "a bold beggar" (158G, 23); "ye staff-beggar" (ib. 28).
A blacksmith only occurs in "The twa Magicians": "a coalblack smith" (44, 5); "the rusty smith" (ib. 6, 11).
Professional harpers are mentioned in several ballads, though Robin Hood is only pretending to be one in "Robin Hood and Allan a Dale" (138): "the best harper" (60, 40); "thou proud harper" (ib. 50); 'a harper he was good" (67A, 1); "a harper gude, the best harper" (ib. Bl); "l am a bold harper" (138, 16); "silly blind harper" (192A, 1, 7); "silly poor harper" (ib. 8); "poor old harper" (ib. 19, 20).
A judge occurs in "The Maid freed from the Gallows" (95); "O good Lord Judge, O sweet Lord Judge!" (95A, 1, 4, 7, 10, 13).
The kitchen-boy in "Lady Diamond" is fatally attractive: "a very bonnie kitchen-boy" (269A, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10).
A "gude midwife" is mentioned in 15, 21 and in 102B, 11.
Nurses had none of this simple goodness about them, often being false creatures: "the little nurice" (83D, 12); ''ye false nurice" (ib. 13); 'yellow nurse" (83C, 14, 15); "wylie nurse" (83E, 15, 16, F21); "filthy nurse" (83F, 22); "the nurice was a fause limmer" (93A, 6); "the fause nurice" (ib. 13); "the false nurse" (ib. B4, 7, 8, 10, 21); "an eartly nourris" (113, 1).
The palmer ought perhaps not to come under this head, but in the ballads they play the part of a kind of superior beggars: "an old palmer" (21A, 2, 4, 5); "a poor palmer" (ib. B, 1); "an old palmer" (114A, 10; 114B, 4, 5); "a silly old palmer" (140B, 8); "yonder palmer fair" (141, IC); "a palmer old" (ib. 11).
Pedlars occur in two of the Robin Hood ballads: "The Bold Pedlar and Robin Hood" (132); "a pedlar bold" (ib. 1, 5); "bolde pedlars three" (137, 6); "pore pedlars three" (ib. 24).
Except for a "newë porter" (116b, 93) and a "maiden porter" (303, 10, 11, 21, 22), all ballad porters are "proud": "a proud porter" (30, 11, 13; 41A, 25, 27; 53A, 14, 25; 97A, 14, 19; ib. B, 22; 60, 43, 44, 47).
Hind Etin summoned his "rangers bold" (41A, 40); other rangers



occur in the Robin Hood ballads; a forester bold (131» 2), the bold forester" (ib. 13); "a ranger within the wood" (133, 9); "rangers good" (136, 10).
A robber could be "rank' or merely stout : a rank robbers wife" (14A, 4, 5, 8,9, 12, 13); "a stout robber" (167A, 21); 'a robber all on the salt seas (250A, 5, 6).
Sailors enjoy the esteem they deserve from a maritime nation: "a guid sailor" 58A1, BI); the best sailor (ib. A2, B2); the best seaman (ib. G2); a good seaman (ib. G4); the jolly sailors" (173A, 13); "good saylers" (167A, 3); "saylers good" (ib.); "a seaman brave" (243A, 3); "bold mariners" (243F. 7); "her brave seamen" (250A, 9); "gallant seaman" (285, 24); "a seaman bold" (286A, 2); "the little ship-boy" (ib. 3); "all seamen, both old and young" (ib. 14); the little cabin-boy (ib. B3, 13), "five hundred gallant seamen" (287, 4); "poor seamen" (289A, 1).
The sheriff vies with the porter in being proud: "the hyë sherif" (117a. 15); "the proudë sherif" (ib. a. 146, 196, 199; b. 282, 297, 300. 304, 313; a. 317, 319, 329, 330, 344, 345, 346, 347, 349); "thou prowde schereff" (119, 21, 24); "the proud sheriff" (140B, 18, 29).
The adventurous, wandering professions made the greatest appeal to popular imagination.
5. Emotions. When in challenging mood, ballad folk indulge in "loud laughter": "a loud lauch lauched he" (58A, 4); he gae loud laughters three (ib. B4); She laughd loud laughters three (173A, 8); "A wait a loud laughter gae she" (182A, 15); a loud laughter the lady laught" (271A, 55).
Yet they wept profusely more often than they laughed: tears . .. were blend water and blood" (7F, 5); the saut tear (41A, 29); "the saut tear" (47B, 12); "many a salt tear" (48F, 9); "with the big tear in his een" (50, 11); "the tricking tears" (62A, 16); wi sat tears" (65A, 20); "sa't tears did she weep" (66C, 28); "the saut tears" (83B, 6); "tears trickling" (109A, 26); the salt tear (211, 39); "tears trinkling down" (222C, 5); the saut tear (226B, 26; 253, 6; 268, 11, 16); "her falling tear" (293A, 9); "the salt tear" (182A, 12); "with wepyng teyres" (161A, 67); "with wepyng tears (162A, 57); many a tear (304, 48).



Weeping could be accompanied by sighing: "Wi many a sad sigh and heavy groan" (77B, 9); "Why sigh you soe sore?" (31,7); "my sighing soe deepe" (ib. 8).
Love plays an important part in the ballads: "loue y sweetter than ys the note" (IA, 19); "love is longer that the way" (IA, 16); "a little o dear bought love" (72, 8); "sad and heavy was the love" (69, Al, BI); "meickle dear bought love" (101A, 15); "Ohone, alas for dear bought love" (ib. 16); "like proper paramour" (102A, 2); "deep in love" (218A, 13); "as dearly as I lovd thee" (227, 27); "that I do love so dear" (237, 20); "I love my lady dearly" (241A, 10); "this damsel dearly was beloved" (243A, 2); "she loved him tenderly" (244A, 3); "a fair that loved a fair maiden well" (276B, 1); "part not true love" (272, 28).
This emotion is often expressed by the word true-love, the epithet "true" is so inseparably joined to the noun that it is possible to refer to a "false true-love" (86A, 1) in the same sense as 'fause love" (218A, 4). The term "true-love" occurs in: 69F, 4, 17; 70B, 3; 71, 6, 47; 80, 28; 86A, 2, 3; 88B, 7; 92A, 3; 95A, 14; 96A, 2; 99A, 14; 105, 6, 7; 103A, 16; 107A, 73; 108, 15, 16; 112A, 11; 138, 12, 14, 22; 214, A2, 12, 14; 212A, 1; 216A, 1, 11; 221A, 9; 234A, 8; 247, 10; 248, 1; 249, 2; 258A, 36; 272, 6; 161A, 44; 294A, 13; 300, 20; 302, 6; 303, 24. Other varieties are: "a new, new love" (59A, 15); "my first fair love" (83D, 18, 19); "my love so true' (85A, 4); "my bonny love" (91C, 9); "change your old love for no new" (109A, 95); "fause love" (218A, 4); "her first fere love" (221B, 35); "my dear and only love" (243A, 17); 'my long, long love" (ib. F, 1); "my first love" (247A, 3); "my ain luve" (261, 8); "true Thomas' first love" (253, 24); "my luve sae true" (270, 15, 16); "my dear love" (292, 17).
6. Action. Emotions were speedily resolved into various actions.
A favourite action is to look over the left shoulder: 7A', 21; 7B, 4; 53A, 21; 63B, 5; 156A, 20; 167A, 7: 169A, 11, B, 13; 176, 37; 185, 35; 191A, 19, C, 9; "right shoulder" (ib. A, 21); left shoulder again in 198, 5; 260A, 2; 235A, 13. This action is beloved by both men and women.



An action peculiar to women is "hooly, hooly rising up": "Huly went she to the door" (70B, 4); "O hooly, hooly rose she up" (84A, 3); "And slowly, slowly raise she up, And slowly, slowly left hom" (84A, 7); "So slowly, slowly she got up, And so slowly she came to him" (84B, 6); "Hooly, hooly rase she up, And hooly she gade hame" (52A, 12); "Huly, huly rase she up, And slowly put she on" (264, 8).
Calling out for the saddling of black and brown steeds was an action that often speedily followed bad tidings: "O saddle me the black, the black, Or saddle me the brown" (65A, 25); "Gar saddle me the black, she says, Gar saddle me the brown, Gar saddle me the swiftest steed That ever rode the town" (76A, 3); "Come saddle to me my horse, he said, Come saddle to me with speed" (208A, 4); "He saddled, he bridled, and gallant rode he" (210C, 6).
The device of writing a letter under emotional stress is another device of the ballad muse: "a love-letter" (96E, 9, 13); "a loueletter ffull round" (108, 11); "a loue-letter" (ib. 18); "this letter ffaire" (109A, 19); "a lettre wryten wele" (116b. 55); "a lang letter" (208A, 1); "a braid letter" (ib. Dl); "a lang letter" (209A, 2); "a broad letter" (ib. D5); "a broad letter" (222A, 20); a lang letter" (ib. C8, 9); "a braid letter" (233A, 22); "letters he got, all sealed in black" (235A, 18); "a broad letter" (237, 10); "a braid letter" (246A, 7); "a broad letter" (266A, 8); "a love-letter' (295A, 2; B3); "a braid letter" (251, 15, 18, 19); "a long letter" (254A, 6).
An oath or a vow was often uttered; "They have sworn a bluidy oath" (114B, 7); "The sherif sware a full grete oath" (117a. 33); "the porter sware a full grete oath (ib. b. 100); Robin Hood took a solemn oath" (123B, 8); "Then Robin swore a solemn oath" (140B, 17); "and swore a great oath" (149, 14); "a solemn oath sware he" (251, 7); "her father sware a solemn oath" (270, 21); "a solemn vow" (243A, 4); "my former vows" (ib. Dl, F2); "a rash vow" (303, 4).
Looking over the castle wall and tearing of hair were frequent actions, but did not call for the use of epithets.
7. Appearance: Descriptions of personal adornment abound:



Beits of great value were often worn: "a girdle, It's red gowd into the middle" (6A, 22); "my gowd and my gowden girdle" (10B, 12); "For gouden girdle that was sae braw" (ib. 21); "his ain sword-belt" (4A, 12); "Here is a royal belt" (24A, 7); "A belt about the middle gimp, Which cost Clerk Colvin crowns fifteen" (42A, 1); "The belt around her stately waist Cost Clerk Colvill pounds fifteen" (ib. BI); "my girdle of gold" (63A, 2); "my golden girdle" (ib. B8); "girdles of shinning gold" (103, 57); "her broadest belt, with silver clasp" (157G, 12); "belted knights" (103A, 26); "wi belted plaids" (203A, 11, B3); "well belted" (304, 14).
Brooches are mentioned in connexion with rings, or knives, as wooing presents; once a brooch receives the epithet "bonny": "And bonny jewels, brooches and rings" (246A, 14); "If you have bonny brooches and jewels" (ib. 15).
The Highland bonnet enhanced the attractiveness of the Highland youth: "cockt up shall my bonnet be" (39A, 30); "a blew bonnet" (149, 9); "wi philabeg an bonnet blue" (222A, 21); "a littel we bonnetie" (294A, 23); "a little blue bonnetie" (ib. B, 2, 3).
Pride was taken in a good bow: "My bonny bow" (82, 5); "Your bow well bent" (ib. 6); "a bent bow in his hand" (114A, 5); 'bows of yew, if ye be true" (ib. 18); "his joly bow" (115, 5); good bow" (ib. 9, 15); "a well good bowe" (116 c. 26); "his yew-tree bow" (16A, 2); "his bent bow" (65B, 22); "a ryght good bow" (116 c. 37); "theyd good yew-bowes" (ib. b. 68);
bowes full gode" (ib. 95); "hys bowe was great and longe" (ib. c. 159); thy gode bowe" (177 a. 17); "with bowes stronge" (ib. b. 289); "good bowes bent" (ib. a. 342); "full goode bowe" (ib. 347); "a good veiwe bowe" (118, 15); "my vew-bow" (120, A27); "my bent-bow" (ib. B16); "the best bow" (121, 49); "a good bow" (123B, 2); "a strong bow" (ib. 7); "with a long bow" (125, 10); "a curious long bow" (ib. 35); "a right good bow" (128, 6); "a very good bow" (ib. 11); "with his strong bow" (129, 1); "with trusty long bows" (131, 16); "with a long bow" (ib. 19); "with a curious long bow" (ib. 22); "his noble bow" (134, 21); "a noble bow" (139, 7); "their long bows" (140A, 6); "a good, yew bow" (141, 38); "bent bow" (148, 18, 20); "bended bow" (ib. 21); "a



luste long bow" (149, 3); "my longest long bow" (ib. 24); "with his long bow" (154, 39); "the bows that bauldly ring" (305A, 16).
Combs were treasured possessions, made of silver or ivory: a silver kaim" (50, 4); "gold kems in their hair" (58A, 10); her ivory comb" (74A, 3); "the red river i) Comb" (76A, 19, 21); "She gave him a shaver for his beard, A comber till his hair (53C, 9); *) "the new-made siller kemb" (76B, 2); "the king s
reeding-comb" (182A, 7).
Drums are mentioned three times with epithets: drumes striking loud and high" (158A, 22, 28); "a flying drum" (202, 12); "drums beating and fifes playing" (251, 49).
Fans were on a par with combs as articles of luxury: my oowden fan" (11A. 23); "red fan" (71, 9, 11); "white fan" (ib. 9, 11); "gold fann" (294A, 4); "goud fann" (ib. 5); "gowd fan (ib. B, 4, 5). ff
Feathers are occasionally mentioned as hat ornaments: white ffeathers plewed with gold" (107A, 49); "fethers blacke" (145A, 19); "white feathers" (ib. B, 15); "with fether that is soe ffine" (271, 25).
Gold was highly esteemed, and is frequently mentioned: "goud sae red" (5A, 5); "red goud" (6A, 22); "the gold sae high" (7A, 14); "the gowd sae yellow" (24A, 16; B, 15); beaten gold (38,7), "gude red gowd" (15A, 2); "red gowd" (48, 5, 6 etc.); "redd gold" (63A, 18, 20, etc.); "the gold so red" (66A, 6, 9); 'the massy gold" (76A, 13); "the good red gold" (ib. D. 17); "gold sae rid" (96E, 2); "the beaten gold" (ib. 19); "good red goud" (58G, 8); "the beaten gold" (68C, 12, 14); "good red gold" (80, 21); "red gold" (83D, 11); "gowd sae gay" (88B, 3); "the beaten gold" (92A, 7); "red gold" (93B, 19, 20); "the burning gold" (94, 3); "the beaten gold" (99A, 15); gold soe red (108, 12),
l) Note: There is a query in the Cambridge edition as to whether the word "river" is a corruption of "ivory". I think it more likely that the word denves from the verb to rive. O.E. reofan, O.N. rifa, Dan. riye, to tear to rake from which it is but a step to the idea of combing. River would then be used in the same way as "comber". This seems a more satisfactory explanation than "a corruption of ivory", especially as ivory is not red.
*) Note: Reeding must represent O.E. raedan, explain, O.N. reida, accomodate, Dan. rede, arrange.



"good red gold" (135, 7); "reddy gold" (138, 12, 13); "glistering gold" (138, 18); "good broad gold" (140B, 12); "gold so red" (142B, 20); "good redd gold" (165, 6); "gold deerlye dight" (167A, 36); "gold soe cleere" (ib. 59); "burning gold" (169C, 25); "shining gold" (204A, 3); "good red gowd" (222B, 2); "my cursed gold" (225A, 6; B, 7); "red gold" (235A, 8); "shining gold" (243A, 26); "beaten gold" (ib. F, 9); "gude red gowd" (262, 6, 12); "beaten gold" (267A, 19); "gold, soe red" (ib. 27); "rich gowd" (ib. B, 24); "bonny beaten gold" (248, 6); "redd gold" (252A, 12); "gued read gowd" (ib. 23); "gude red gowd" (255, 9; 268, 14, 37); "guid red gowd" (270, 3); "gold soe free" (271, 23); "much red gowd" (301, 9); "guid red gowd" (304, 16).
Hair was only considered beautiful if it was fair, "yellow ', or "yallow": 5A, 55, 56; 6A, 2; 10A, 15, 20, 25; 41A, 43, BI, 2, 6; 39A, 3, 8; 47B, 4, 12; 53C, 8; 58B, 2; 59C, 1; 62A, 4, E, 3; 63A, 10; 64A, 13; 65A, 10; 66A, 26, 27; 67B, 19, 20; 68A, 26, C, 21; 70A, 7; 76D, 2, 4, 30; 83A, 2, 20; 99A, 8; 103A, 13, 19, 20; 107A, 20; 182A, 4, b, 3; 242, 5; 257A, 13; 263, 9; 296A, 11; 255, 17, 18; other epithets are: "grey hair" (7A', 9); "her silken locks of hair" (20P, 24); "how golden yellow is your hair" (247, 1); "her hair it was three quarters lang, It hang baith side and yellow" (214A, !5); "her yellow hair, That hung down lang and yellow" (215B,
2); "his hair was like to threads o gold" (100A, 9); "her hair was like the threads o gold" (235A, 9); "I wat she s neither black nor brown, But her hair is like the thread o goud, Aye an it waur weel kaimed doun" (256, 1); "his hair was like the threads o gold" (269A, 8); "his hairs are like the threads of gold" (293A, 3).
Fine hair deserved fine hair ornaments: "her head-geere fine" (48, 17); "we silken sneed" (294, A4, 5, B, 4, 5); "her midnight quoif" (85A, 1); "her night-coif" (ib. C, 4); "as knotts been knitt on a keil" (83A, 5, 12); "her keem and her sneed" (216A, 22).
Hunting-horns were carried by persons of both sexes, whether natural or supernatural beings: "a bugelet horn" (7B, 3); "his little horn" (7F, 6);"a gude grey horn" (15A, 44, 46); "his hunting horn" (ISA, 32); "a grass-green horn" (35, 8); "a small horn" (36, 14); "her bugle-horn" (27C', 3); ' the horn so syde" (47A,
3); "a lightsome bugle" (61, 18); "a bugle-horn" (103A, 15, 27);



"an oute-horn" (116 b. 87); "grete hornes" (117 b. 296); "a full grete horne" (ib. 389); "my litle horn" (123A, 4); "hie fine bugleiiom" (125, 22); "the beaugle-horn" (126, 29); "the bugle horn" (129, 4); "my little horn" (133, 18); "my beaugle horn" (135, 15); "rny bugle horn" (136, 16); "my litle horne" (140A, 9); "my small horn" (ib. B, 23); "a bugle-horn" (144, 11); "his bugle so clear" (149, 25); "my little wee horn" (282, 16).
Jewels are not mentioned very frequently: "jewels sae fair to see" (35, 6); "jewels fine" (37C', 3); "bonny jewels" (246A, 14); "rich jewels (247, 7, 9); a jewel fine (266, 5).
Mantles displayed wealt'n and rank: "his gay mantle" (32, 5, 16); "a mantle o red scarlet" (35, 3); "a pretty mantle" (29, 6); "her mantel of the velvet fine" (37A, 2); "green mantles" (39A, 2); "her mantle was o velvet green" (ib. C, 3); a silk mantle (46A, 15, 16); "a silk mantel" (ib. B, 12, 13); "your green mantel" (50, 3); "my mantle's o the finest silk" (52C, 4); "My mantle is a gude green silk" (16D, 4); "a mantle of greene, as greene as any grasse" (83A, 7); "this gay mantele" (200A, 3); my silk manteel (ib.
B, 5);
Sleeves are generally grass-green; silken sleeve (221K, 21); "grass-green sleeve" 52C, D, 5; 110E, 14; 217D, 5; 221A, 10, B 12).
The little penknife is almost ubiquitous, and was evidently big enough to end the owner's life, or that of his or her enemy, the epithet "little" occurs in: 5A, 58, 65; 10B, 3; 11B, 11; 14A, 4, 5, 8, 9, 12, 13, 18; 20B, 3; C, 3; P, 8, 18; 49B, 3; 67A, 19; 68A, 6;
C. 6; 114A, 8; 155B, 4; N, 7, 14; 161A, 58, 65; 291. 4. "A wee penknife" occurs in 52A, 11, and "a keen penknife" in 155B, 12.
Rings were often exchanged as symbols of faithfulness; they were considered as things of great value: "a gay gold ring (5A, 57); "gouden rings that was sae gryte" (10B, 22); "a diamond ring" (17A, 4); "when this ring grows pale and wan" (ib. 5); "a royal ring" (34A, 9, 10); "royal rings hae three" (41A, 24); "a ryng of gold" (60, 47); "a ring of gold, A ring of precious stone" (83A, 8); "A ring, he said, It's all gold, but the stane (ib. B, 4, 9); "the gowd rings" (91C, 9); "a ring with a ruby stone" (92A, 7); "his gay gowd ring" (ib. 9); a gay gold «n9 (98A, 10); "a gay gold ring" (104B, 1); "this gay gold ring



(107A, 53); thy gay gold ring (110A, 12); "a good golde ryng" (111, 5); "a golde ryng" (121, 61); "her gay gold ring" (145A, 15); "the gold ring" (176, 34); "a good gold ring" (195A, 13);
a great gold ring (ib. B, 13); the gold rings of her fingers" (200B, 3); "my gay gold ring" (212B, 1); "your gay gold ring" (ib. B, 2); "and diamond ring" (213, 19); "a wedding ring" (218B, 8); the gold rings (235A, 9); "bonny jewels, brooches, and rings" (246A, 14); "a gay gold ring" (252A, 13); "a gay gould ring (ib. 22); a gay goud ring" (ib. 33); "her gay gold ring" (277A, 2); "her gay goud ring" (ib. 4); "my gay goud ring" (ib. A, 8; B, 10); "these golden rings" (295B, 13); "a ring, a royal thing" (304, 25, 26, 36).
Shoes, when mentioned in the ballads, are either high-heeled and made of Corduan leather, or low-heeled brogues: "laigh-colld shoone" (5A, 52); "cork-heeled shoen" (59A, 8); "cork-heeled shoone (63B, 4); "shoon of the cordwain fine" (97A, 17); "shoes of the American leather" (114A, 13; C, 2); "high-heeld shoes" (227, 7, 20, 21); "was made of gilded leather" (ib. 20); "a pair of laugh ones" (ib. 21); "her laised shon so fine" (232B, 11); "shoes were of the small cordain" (235A, 7); "ill-buckled shen" (245A, 18); "singel-soled sheen" (294A, 2, 3); "single-soled sheen (ib. B, 2, 3); high-heeld sheen, Made o the Turkey leather And she's put on the single, brogues" (ib. B, 14).
Silk and satin were worn by the high-born, silk threads also being used for embroidering: "twisting the red silk and the blue" (28, refrain); "a sark of the saftest silk" (35, 5); "grass-green silk (37A, 2); silk sae white (73C, 38); "the silks of crimsion" (76A, 2); "the silk sae fine" (ib. D, 15); "silk satin" (46A, 3); "ffine breaden silke" (48, 9); "braue white silke" (ib. 13); "the saft, saft silk" (97A, 17); "the red silk" (100A, 9); "of twisted silk" (107A, 50); "of silke full sure" (116 b. 83); "of gay green silks" (132, 3); "silk kirtled sae braw" (226B, 19); "the braided satten (235A, 7); white sarsenet" (ib. 8); "silk and sarsenet r.hining (ib. 9); of finest silk" (243A, 26); "of silks sae fine" (253, 1); "the finest silk" (ib. 18).
Silver is mentioned less than gold: "siller clear" (73C, 37); "the beat silver (76A, 4, 27); silver grey" (83B, 3, 8); "whyte siluer"



(177 a. 132); "siluer white" (ib. 191); "sylver white" (ib. b. 285); "good silver" (134, 67); "silver white" (152, 7); "siller white" (262, 6); "silver ffree" (109A, 64); "silver grey" (248, 6); "silver fine" (253, 19); "siller grey" (255, 9).
A good sword was one of the warrior's most treasured possessions: "guid braid sword" (51A, 5); "well good sword" (59A, 43); "eldryge sword" (61, 27); "bright browne sword" (67A, 22; 80, 22; 83A, 26); "bloody sword" (88A, 10); 'little small sword (ib. B, 4; C, 22); "small-sword" (102B, 14); "ful gode sword" (117a, 167); "full good sword" 117b. 211); "brownë sword" (117b. 305); "bryght sword" (ib. 350); "too-hand sword" (119, 20); "gode sword" (119, 72); "good sword" (122A, 5); "a fayre sword" (123A, 6); 'a broad sword" (ib. 9); nut-brown sword (133, 12), "good broad sword" (141, 7); "his basket-hilt sword" (149, 11); "a long sword" (159, 9); "swordes scherpe and long" (161A, 54); "the sword was scharpe" (ib. 56); "swordes that were of fine myllen" (162A, 31); "their lang swords" (163A, 11); "your good sword" (ib. 13); "swords baith sharp and lang" (ib. 14); "swords and spears soe sharpe" (180, 4); "twa-handid sword" (185, 33, 42, 49); "their braid swords" (187B, 5); an auld sword (190, 6), "a broad sword" (191A, 4); "his mickle sword" (ib. 8); "sharp swords" (203B, 1); "broad swords" (211, 42); "my broad sword (260A, 4); "a naked sword" (271, 28); your keen bright sword
(292, 1). „ „
Trumpets are occasionally mentioned: trumpets sounding (158A, 23, 28); "loud the warden's trumpet blew" (186, 31); the
braying trumpets" (284, 8). ^
Velvet, like silk, indicated high rank: "velvet fine (37A, 2; B, 3); "black velvet chair" (59B, 26); "blacke veluett" (48, 8); "the black velvet" (114C, 5); "of red veluett" (140A, 12); "of velvet as green as grass" (149, 27); "in velvet green" (204A, 2).
"White money" is frequently used to denote silver coins: ot the white money" (182A, 8); " a peck o white pennies" (191C, 6); "a' our white money" (58G, 6); "mickle goud an white monie (53A, 7); "your land and white monie" (83D, 29); mone of your white'money" (237, 31); "and likewise your white money" (268, 63); "baith gold and white money' (247, 13).



The colours mentioned in the ballads are: Blue, black, brown, grey, purple, red, scarlet, white, and yellow: "the noble blue" (184, 24); "a' set wi bonnie blue" (206, 9); "bonny blue plaidie" (226B, 12); "coal-black" (58B, 12, 13); "sable-hue black" (129, 10); "a bonny black" (190, 16, 20); "coal-black" (216B, 5); "as black as a sloe" (295, A, 1, B, 1); "the bonny black" (263, 8); "dowie, dowie the black put on, the black sae dowie" (229A, 19, 21); "berry-brown" (4B, 3); "nut-browne" (73A, 4); "nit-browne (ib. C, 7); "berry-brown" (100A, 4, 5); "light green" (10B, refrain); "grass-green" (35, 8; 37A, 2); "dainty green" (53C, 17, 21, 28); "fayre green" (123A, 11); "Lincoln green" (ib. B, 33); "green most gay to be seen" (125, 23, 35); "gay green" (132, 3,4); "green, most gay to be seen" (133, 4); "light Lincolne green" (140A, 2); "Lincolne green" (145A, 18; B, 13, 15); "green, most brave to be seen" (146, 6); "light Lincoln green" (149, 10; 152, 13); "green is the best" (107A, 25, 76); "Lincoln green" (114A, 4); "Linkum green" (ib. B, 2); "light Linkum green" (ib. C, 2); "the Lincoln grene so fair to see" (305A, 4, 19, 32); "gude grey" (15, 44, 46); "gay grey" (44, 11); "the grey sae grey" (731, 19); "dapple grey" (122B, 30); "mothly gray" (128, 27); "gray russett and torn" (140A, 2); "dapple grey" (143, 15); "wonderous gray" (175, 25); "good grey" (187B, 34); "gude gray" (192A, 3, 4); "gude grey" (209A, 4); "the simple grey" (221C, 13); "Hieland grey" (226B, 5); good gray (228A, 25); bonny grey" (248, 6); "silver grey" (ib.); purple only occurs in the combination "purple and pall"; "the red sae red" (731, 19); "cherry red" (74A, 12); "scarlet red" (48, 11); "bluid-red" (58A, 1, B, 1); "royal red" (97B, 15); "scarlet fine" (20P, 12, 13, 14); "red scarlet" (31, 15, 27, 33; 53C, 17, 21, 28; 102A, 8); "scarlet red" (62E, 6; 138, 3; 145A, 18); "scarlet fine and gay" (138, 5); "the red scarlett" (114A, 4, B, 2); the red scarlet (260A, 4; 263, 8); (it follows that scarlet did not necessarily mean red at this stage); "milk-white" (15A, 30; 43B, 9; 50, 4; 62B, 4; 66C, 22; 73C, 21; 68C, 22; 70, Al, B, 1; 83D, 1; 87B, 10; 88B, 17; 89B, 9; 91C, 3; 103A, 19, 20, 48; 104B, 3; 120A, 20; 143, 15; 158A, 17; B, 20; 110A, 23, B, 2, 5; 162B, 17; 169C, 9, 10; 203A, 18; 208D, 3; 217A, 3, 5, 17; B, 10; 22IA, 10, B, 12, C, 11; 222A, 30; 227, 10; 229A, 7; 236A, 14; 240A, 10;



243D, 9; 260A, 8; 302, 2); "lily-white" (21A, 1; 48, 7; 77A, 10; 108, 15; 155N, 6; 158B, 37; 219A, 3; 260A, 16); "whey-white" (42B, 7); "snaw-white" (59B, 13); "whiter than the milk" (42A, 5, B, 5); "white as snaw" (52A, 20); "white as ony lawn" (68C, 23); "as white as milk" (63A, 35; 100A, 9); "as white as sleet" (70A, 8); "white as bone" (91A, 14, 20); "white as a swan" (93B, 16); "white as whall" (111, 7); "white as any clay" (134, 29); "white as the milk" (220A, 3); "as white's the lily flower" (261, 3); "white like flowers" (268, 50); "as white as lilly flower" (271, 26); "gold yallow" (99A, 8); "golden yallow" (99A, 8); "golden yallow" (247, 1); "yeluer than ys the wex" (IA, 11, 21).
8. Habitations. Among articles of furniture, beds are mentioned very frequently in the ballads: "feather bed" (58G, 14); carebed" (61, 4); "narrow, narrow make your bed" (62A, 1); bridebed" (74A, 6); "wed-bed" (80, 3); "bride's-bed" (89B, 6); "bridebed" (91A, 33); "death bed" (84B, 7); "care-bed" (107A, 3, 28, 47, 58, 79); "well-made bed" (200A, 4, B, 8); "child-bed" (208A, 5); "the best bed" (216A, 2); "feather beds" (245A, 14); "a wellmade bed" (249, 4; 255, 7, 8); "one broad bed" (254A, 2); "lodging-beds" (291, 4); "bridal-bed (296A, 5).
The word boat does not occur so often as the word ship: a bonny boat" (34B, 7); "a bottomless boat" (51A, 11).
The bowers, outhouses where the maidens dwelt, were the scene of many an amorous incident; a bigly bower (dA, 32; 8A, 1, 71, 40, 42, 45; 96A, 3, 16, 19; B, 6; 301, 1); "painted bour" (5A, 37); "her simmer bower" 51B, 1, 3, 5, 7); "secret bower" (88A, 4, 10); "bonnie bower" (8B, 1; 246, 16, 17; 257A, 14); green bower" (149, 31, 32, 50); "shaded bower" (150, 16); "costly
bower" (303, 1).
The bower stood near a castle: "my castle bound" (47A, 11); "her castle high" (77F, 2); "a fair castle" (89A, 26); "that bonny castle" (ib. 27); "the high castèl" (99A, 11); "a fayre castell, doublé dyched, and walled" (117b. 309); "bonny Castle Gordon" (237, 1, 20); "my bonny castel" (247, 6); "the high castle of Edinbro" (262, 5); "a little castle" (300, 4); "that castell fair" (305A, 2); "the fair castell" (ib. 17); "a prittie castell" (ib. 30).



The castle had its dreaded dungeon: "in dungeon deep" (94, 10); "the dungeon deep" (41B, 11); "in depe dongeon" (166c. 38; b. 65).
The gallows were evidently built up anew for each victim: "a paire of new gallowes" (59A, 13); "a payre of new galowes" (166c. 39, 42; b. 69).
A pleasanter abode were the gardens: "a garden green" (42B, 2; 37A, 8; 107A, 39; 180A, 1; 194A, 1; 195A, 1; 229A, 3; 261, 16; 271A, 71); a garden gay" (54B, 3); "a garden green and qay" (166A, 1).
Ships receive many favourable epithets, rarely the reverse: a bottomless shipp" (13A, 9); "a bottomless boat" (51B, 11); "my pretty ship" (52A, 8, 9, 10); "our guid ship" (58A, 6); "a bonny ship" (64B, 1, 2); "a bony ship" (76B, 5); "a bonny ship" (ib. B, 6; D, 7); their fair shippin (101A, 31); 'ship of warre" (148, 25); noble shipp (177, 13, 15, 22, 27); "the weary coble" (242, 6); that gallant ship" (243F, 15); "his comely cong" (245A, 2, 3);
as good a ship this day As ever sailled our seas" (ib. 3); "bonny ship (ib. 7, 8, 11, 15, 16, 17, 19); "a lofty old ship" (250A, 3); a rich merchant s vessel (ib. A, 9); a ship, both stout and sure"
(ib. E, 7); "a bony ship the ship sall be fair to see" (252A,
-1): bonny ship (ib. 12, 15, 23); "the ship was rair" (ib. 14); 'the bonniest ship" (ib. 16, 26); "a good blacke barke" (284, 5); a goodly ship (ib. 6); a small vessel (266A, 9); "two merchant men" (285, 1, 5, 15); "your good ship" (ib. 4, 14); "the false gallaly (286A, 1, 2, 5, 10); "a gallant ship" (ib. B, 1); "our gallant ship" (289A, 5, 13; B2, 6).
Towers are generally mentioned in the combination "halls and towers", but sometimes alone: "the bonny towrs" (53C, 5); "the highest tower" (62A, 6); "the hichest tower" (77F, 1); "her highest tower" (88A, 4, 5); "a tower strong" (104A, 2); "his towers they stand hie" (239, 3); "a tower so hie" (270, 2).
Towns occur chiefly in the later ballads: "in London city" (53A, 1); fair London (75A, 5; 105, 3, 6); "one good town" (110A, 25); "towne of mery Carlil" (116c. 20); "louly London" (145A, 19, 20); "fair London's court" (ib. B, 12, 16); "merry sweet Locksly town (149, 2); lovely London (168, 1); fair Edinburgh town"



(209D, 7); "fair London town" (208A, 4, 9, 11); "boney Glassgow town" (228A, 1); "Plymouth stately town" (243A, 1); "fair Lundan" (251, 5); "yon borrows-town" (280A, 6; 282, 1); "fair Plymouth town" (289A, 8); "fair Portsmouth" (ib. A, 9); "fair Exeter" (ib. A, 10); "fair Bristol town" (ib. B, 2); "fair Portsmouth town" (ib. B, 3); "fair Plymouth town" (ib. B, 4); "yonder town" (295A, 2); "the bonny town of Torry" (297, 9).
The well plays a part of some importance in the ballads: "at the barn-well" (93A, 8); "at the far well" (ib. 9); "yon cauld well strong" (104B, 11); "Our Lady's draw-well" (155A, 9); "Our Lady's deep draw-well" (ib. A, 14); "a deep draw-well" (ib. B, 7, 10, 11); "this well is wondrous deep" (ib. B. 12); the Jew s drawwell" (ib. C, 10, 14); "a little draw-well" (ib. N, 9, 11).
Windows are mentioned frequently, the bow-window (52A, BI); "out at the shot-window" (77B, 9); "a window of stone" (80, 25); "a shot-wyndow" (116c. 22); "a shot-window" (120A, 20; 212B, 6); "a high window" (221B, 4); "to the wire-window" (196A, 9, 10, 17; C, 7); "her west window" (246A, 9); "her bowerwindow" (260A, 9).
9. Occupations. One of the most salient occupations in ballads is that of "sewing the silken seam". As M. A. Jeanroy remarks:
"Les pièces que les critiques modernes ont nommées romances étaient appelées au moyen age "chansons de toile", soit parce'elles mettent souvent en scène des femmes occupées a coudre ou a filer, soit parcequ'elles servaient a égayer ces travaux". (La Litt. de la Langue Fran^aise des Origines a Ronsard). The term sewing her silken seam' occurs in 41A, 1; 52A, 1; 86A, 1; 104B, 1; 260A, 9, 291, 1; a variation, "And sew the seams o silk" occurs in 300, 13.
There is evidence of dancing in the ballads, but the names of the dances are rarely mentioned; 10A, 13 states that: Uuto the violl they danc d Moll Syms ; a chain dance is suggested by the line: "her mither danced afore them a " (11B, 9); round dances by: "And danc'd round the oke tree" (126, 36), And danced about the oak tree" (142B, 21); and "A' dancing in a ring" (231A, 16); a reel is mentioned in 19A, 8, 13; An dan he played da göd gabbar reel". Music is often mentioned together with dancing:



"We heard fine music ring" (41A, 21); "Nor music weel fa'n to" (64B, 15); "and music playing, And ladies dancing a" (87B, 7); "my musick every day, harmonious lessons for to play" (106.
21); "my bow .... which was my music sweet" (120B, 17); "bowstrings twang, Music for us most sweet" (141, 38); "with music springs (quick tunes) ye'11 try well your strings" (235A, 4). The harp is frequently mentioned, and the lute once, but without epithets. The pastime of singing is often mentioned: "the best singer" (60, 40); "your sweet singing" (96A, 9); ".... a merry song, and then he sang a grave" (ib. A, 10); "and sing a lovely song" ib. E, 7); "it sings sweet" (97B, 1); "your loud sang" (103A, 4); "their loud, loud sang" (ib. A, 11); "a lyght songe" 117b. 134); "sung with a merry glee" (133, 31); "my merry new song" (142B,
22); "Robin did merrily sing" (147, 11); "some dancing a morris. And some singing Arthur-a-Bradly" (149, 46); "they all did sing: God save the king" (ib. 37); "they sang sae sweet and sae very compleat" (200A, 1); "and O but they sang bonnie" (ib. B, 1); "she sung with a merry devotion" (283, 20); "and sing like a swan my doom" (292, 13). Whistling is mentioned a good deal, but does not give rise to the use of epithets; the same applies to: hunting, playing at the chess, playing at the ball, and jousting. The fixed use of the term "sewing her silken seam" would seem to bear out the theory that the ballads were chiefly sung, and perhaps composed, by women.



CHAPTER II.
The Epithet in Spanish Ballads.
Passing from the ballads of England and Scotland to those of Spain, one finds both resemblances and contrasts in the use of the epithet; the resemblance lies chiefly in the similarity of the construction of society as well as in a rough, warlike way of living, while the contrast lies in the difference of race and clime. the southern ballads being more tinged with emotion.
I. The natural world: The mention of plants and animals, with the exception of the horse, is less frequent than in English and Scottish ballads, more elaboration being granted to human affairs.
Castille and the Castilians are proud of their country and their race: "Castilla la bien nombrada" (Pr. 36, D. 763, 1. 6); buenos castellanos" (D. 697,1. 83); "el soberbio castillano" (Pr. 29, D. 731, 1. 6); "el soberbio castellano" (Pr. 37, D. 774, 1. 2); el valiente castellano" (D. 84, 1. 4); "los nobles castellanos, mas valerosos que muchos" (D. 902, 1. 5, 6). The same applies to Spain and the Spaniards: "Madre Espana! en el mundo tan nombrada" (Pr. 4, 1. 15); "la belicosa Espana" (D. 651, 1. 12); Madre Espana (D. 1037, 1. 47); "nuestra esclarecida Espana (D. 1137, 1. 4); toda la noble Espana" (ib., 1.72); "espanol de tronco claro" (D. 1027, 1. 14); "el fiero espanol" (D. 1139, 1. 121); "el invencible espanol" (ib., 1. 227); "el valeroso espanol" (ib., 1. 285; D. 1145, 1. 45; D. 1188, 1. 85); "sus fuertes espanoles" (D. 1197, 1. 77); los famosos espanoles" (D. 266,1. 14). Their arch enemies, the Moors, naturally come in for a good deal of abuse, but are occasionally admitted to be brave and wise, while the beauty of the Moorish maiden did not escape the valorous Spaniard's notice: "los moros malvados (D. 607, 1. 128); "los moros paganos" (D. 618, 1. 44); "entre fieros moros" (D. 624, 1. 56); "los cobardes moros" (D. 632, 1. 141); "moros renegados" (D. 697, 1. 15); el fiero moro Almanzor (D. 709, 1. 2); "moros astrosos, moros de poco valia (Pr. 21,



D. 676, 1. 19, 20); "un moro renegado" (Pr. 27, 1. 4); "moros malvados" (D. 945, 1. 34); "moros perros" (D. 1068, 1. 3); "moros de bajo estado" (D. 954, 1. 92); "el perro moro" (D. 983, 1. 1; Pr. 89, 1. 77; Pr. 123, D. 10, 1. 41); "un moro perro" (D. 1037, 1. 9);
el verdugo moro (Pr. 122, D. 10, 1. 41); "un perro moro moreno" (Pr. 128, D. 5, 1. 16; Pr. 131,1. 11); D. 258, 1. 21); the term "moro viejo" (Pr. 127, 1. 3, Pr. 193, D. 373, 1. 11; Pr. 4, D. 594, 1. 5; D. 1149, 1. 101; D. 1153, 1. 4; D. 962, 1. 9; Pr. 95, 1. 129) is used in the sense of a wise, old Moor; "un moro anciano" (Pr. 63, D. 951, 1. 39); "un moro gran sabidor" (D. 962, 1. 37); "moros sabios" (D. 6, 1. 1); "un moro gallardo" (D. 692, 1. 44); "valientes moros" (D. 1078, 1. 35); "el moro mas senalado" (D. 1083, 1. 30); "moro valiente" (Pr. 81, D. 1041, 1. 5); "moro senalado" (Pr. 94, D. 1129, 1. 4); "robusto moro" (D. 1130, 1. 5); "los africanos moros" (D. 1246, 1. 3); "el valiente moro" (D. 1093, 1. 53); "un valiente y gentil moro (D. 1094, 1. 85); "la hermosa mora Zaida" (D. 913, 1. 1); "una morica blanca, rubkia a maravilla, blanca es y colorada, hermosa como una estrella" (D. 114, 1. 25, 26); "hermosa mora" (D. 116, 1. 111); "uno morica garrida" (Pr. 169, D. 358, 1. 6); "mora de muy gran estado" (D. 367, 1. 90).
i he native soil was preferred to foreign parts: "Que todo hombre nacido que es de hueso y de carne, El mayor deseo que tenia es en sus tierras holgare" (Pr. 164, D. 354, 1. 351, 352); "en sus tierras naturales" (ib. 408); "tierra de cristianidade" (Pr. 173, D. 377, 1. 524, 578); "tierra natural" (Pr. 178, 1. 148); distant lands are indicated as: „tierras agenas" (Pr. 164, D. 354, 1. 1.59); "tierras ajenas' (ib. 1. 81); "de allende la mar" (ib. 1. 520); "de tierras ajenas" (ib. 1. 809); "de tan luengas partes" (ib. 1. 830); "tierra tan extrana (Pr. 175, D. 382, 1. 457); "en tierras muy apartadas" (Pr. 188, D. 369, 1. 31); "a tierras de Montalban" (Pr. 192, 1. 230); "las tierras del Turco" (Pr. 193, D. 373, 1. 63).
The sea is mentioned pretty frequently: "la mar salada" (Pr. 193, D. 373, 1. 84); "la tempestuosa mar" (Pr. 164, D. 354, 1. 242); "alta mar" (Pr. 62, D. 949, 1. 34; Pr. 63, D. 951, 1. 20); "la mar en calma (D. 1037, 1. 15; D. 1038, 1. 5); "la mar andaba tan alta" (Pr. 80, 1. 27); "la mar salada" (Pr. 89, 1. 32; D. 1183, 1. 18); "la mar alto hacia" (D. 1188, 1. 48); "la mar calma hacia" (ib. 1. 122);



"el mar salado" (D. 1197, 1. 14); "el mar helado" (ib. 1. 74); "el ancho mar de Espana' (D. 1371, 1. 9); la mar de Espana (Pr. 101, D. 1227, 1. 3); "el fiero mar" (D. 260, 1. 10); "la mar de Espana" (D. 261, 1. 1); "oh sagrado mar" (D. 265, 1. 21); "la gran mar" (Pr. 152, D. 323, 1. 60); "la mar estando muy brava" (ib. 1. 61); "nuestre mare" (Pr. 164, D. 354, 1. 100).
Besides the Moors and the sea, mention is naturally made of the third neighbour, the French, the first three phrases being uttered by Dona Blanca of Bourbon, the unfortunate consort of Pedro the Cruel; "Oh Francia! mi dulce patria!" (D. 971, 1. 77); "Oh Francia! mi dulce tierra!" (Pr. 68, D. 973, 1. 37); Oh Francia! mi noble tierra!" (Pr. 68a, D. 972, 1. 45); further we find: "ese frances fiero" (D. 1139, 1. 57); "franceses de gran estado" (D. 1140, 1. 150); "la dulce Francia" (D. 1150, 1. 207); "Francia la bien guarnida" (Pr. 154, D. 284, 1. 2; Pr. 154a, D. 285, 1. 1, 16; Pr. 179, D. 384, 1. 30); "el buen frances naturale" (Pr. 164, D. 354, 1. 12), from the Carolingian romances.
Pride was taken in Gothic ancestry; "Los nobilissimos godos (D. 584, 1. 1); "bravos godos" (D. 596, 1. 6); "aquellos godos antiguos" (D. 604, 1. 10); "de los godos esforzados" (ib. 1. 32); "todos los nobles godos" (D. 607, 1. 51); 'en la gente de los godos, varones tan esforzados (ib. 1. 81, 82); a los fuertes nobles godos (ib. 1. 87); "el godo esforzado" (D. 608, 1. 26); "los nobles fuertes godos" (D. 1369, 1. 13). Not only the Gothic ancestors themselves were boasted of, but also their blood flowing in the descendants veins: "la sangre goda (D. 593, 1. 35); la sangre ilustre y clara de aquellos famosos godos" (D. 642, 1. 54, 56); further indications of noble birth are: "de sangre hidalga (D. 648, 1. 14); esta sangre, que es buena" (D. 792, 1. 77); noble sangre (D. 835, 1. 12); "sangre buena" (D. 844, 1. 28; D. 845, 1. 24); "la sangre antigua y clara" (D. 943, 1. 14); "de sangre real" (D. 191, 1. 60; D. 965, 1. 21); "sangre cristiana" (D. 983, 1. 7); "mi noble y alta sangre" (Pr. 81, D. 1041, 1. 14); "su sangre antigua y clara" (D. 1066, 1. 20); "noble sangre" (D. 1153, 1. 5); "sangre real" (D. 1150, 1. 74); "real sangre ' (D. 1220, 1. 7); alta sangre (Pr. 104, D. 1243, 1. 123); "noble sangre" (D. 259, 1. 23); sangre buena' (D. 358, 1. 23).



An expression of contempt is "la hebrea sangre ingrata" (D. 967, 1. 48); innocence is twice indicated by "sangre inocente" (D. 958, 1. 31; D. 798, 1. 5); blood shed in battle is referred to as: "sangre viva" (Pr. 96a, D. 1086, 1. 6); "roja sangre" (Pr. 96b, D. 1086, 1. 2; D. 1111,1. 18; D. 1200, 1. 7; Pr. 173, D. 377, 1. 23); "sangre valerosa" (D. 1125, 1. 65); "sangre mia natural" (Pr. 194, 1. 78).
As regards natural phenomena, I found dawn described as "la blaca aurora" (D. 632, 1. 43), a star as "una luciente estrella" (D. 598, 1. 6); but far more interest is shown in the moon: "tan clara hace la luna como el sol a mediadia" (Pr. 169, D. 358, 1. 1, 2); "la luna era crecida" (Pr. 5a, D. 602, 1. 2); "aquella luna hermosa" (D. 998. I. 1); "la luna estaba crecida" (Pr. 103, D. 1037, 1. 14); "clara luna hacia" (D. 1090, 1. 40); "la luna estaba crecida" (Pr. 152, D. 323, 1. 20). Monday, day of the moon. seemed to be selected for dire events: "un lunes triste y amargo" (D. 992, 1. 2); "lunes, vispera de martes, pues fué de Marte su furia" (D. 996, 1. 11, 12); "un lunes, en fuerte dia" (D. 1251, 1. 2; D. 1252, 1. 2); "lunes fuerte y aciago" (Pr. 109, 1. 38).
The time of action is frequently night: "la sombrosa noche" (D. 1035, 1. 147); "la noche venia tan serena, clara y bella como si fuese de dia" (D. 1094, 1. 28—30); "una noche que hacia muy resplandiciente y clara" (D. 1115, 1. 13, 14); "en este noche fria" (D. 1166, 1. 9); "una noche fria, oscura" (D. 1182, 1. 49); "una noche cerrada" (ib., 1. 41); "malas noches" (D. 1447, 1. 3); "una noche oscura y triste" (D. 263, 1. 9); "la noche era escurecida" (Pr. 164, D. 354, 1. 637); "la npche era muy escura" (Pr. 165, D. 355, 1. 67).
Once mention is made of snow: "mucha nieve esparcida" (D. 1166, 1. 21); and once of the month of November: "al enojado r-oviembre" (D. 1372, 1. 2), yet the wind is mentioned more frequently than one would expect: "los vientos eran contrarios" (Pr. 5a, D. 602, 1. 1); "dos contrarios vientos" (D. 651, 1. 62; D. 652, 1. 62); "gozando del fresco viento" (D. 113, 1. 5); "los aires andan contrarios" (Pr. 98, 1. 1); "los cielos andan revueltos" (D. 1020, 1. 1); "un agua-viento le coge" (D. 1166, 1. 20); "el norte sople furioso y aprisa" (D. 1245, 1. 9, 10); "los vientos



contrarios" (D. 260, 1. 11); "el viento favorable" (D. 265, 1. 45); "el viento muy fresco ' (Pr. 164, D. 354, 1. 405).
The Spanish ballad landscape consists of mountains and mountain ranges, woods, plains, rivers, and sands: ' las montanas las mas espesas que habia" (Pr. 7, D. 606, 1. 5, 6); un monte muy espeso y enramado" (D. 695, 1. 12); "por ser la montana espesa" (ib., 1. 21); "en montanas despobladas (D. 1455, 1. 19); el monte era muy espeso (Pr. 165, D. 355, 1. 55); una alta montana (Pr. 181, D. 387, 1. 46); "una aspera montana" (D. 388, 1. 4); "montes muy altos' (Pr. 184, D. 400, 1. 31); de la alta siërra (D. 1052, 1. 1); "las nevadas sierras" (D. 1168, 1. 3); 'una aspera siërra" (D. 1179, 1. 54); "las altas sierras" (D. 265, 1. 4); "una alta siërra (Pr. 175, D. 382, 1. 443, 511); "un bosque tan espeso" (Pr. 165, D. 355, 1. 61 ); "un bosque muy esquivo" (Pr. 166, D. 356, 1. 113); "un bosque despoblado" (Pr. 167, D. 359, 1. 58; "un aspero boscaje (Pr. 175, D. 382, 1. 394).
No delight was feit in viewing or traversing the inhospitable mountains or the dense woods, but the fertile plain and the green field are praised: la fértil vega" (D. 1071, 1. 3); la tu vega real (D. 1082, 1. 50); "aquella vega llana" (Pr. 89, 1. 102); "un verde prado" (D. 954, 1. 142; Pr. 164, D. 354, 1. 557). Rivers are usually termed mighty [caudalosos]: "el caudal famoso Ebro, del mundo tan celebrado" (D. 648, 1. 67, 68); tu rio tan caudaloso del lajo (D. 836, 1. 6); "caudalosos rios" (D. 1200, 1. 6); "un rio caudale" (Pr. 166, D. 356, 1. 354); "al rio Pionia, el cual muy crecido hallando" (D. 608, 1. 17); "celebrado y dulce rio Guadiana" (D. 1034, 1. 114); "silvestre y amargo rio" (ib. 122); el caudaloso rio (ib. 192); "Rio Verde, Rio Verde!" (Pr. 95, D. 1087, 1. 1; Pr. 96a, D. 1086, 1. 1; Pr. 97b, D. 1085, 1. 1); "el gran rio de Almeria" (D. 1156, 1. 21); "el rio va tinto en sangre" (D. 1168, 1. 72); agua dulce" (Pr. 133, D. 1233, 1. 123); "buen agua" (Pr. 175, D. 382, 1. 420); "cuyas aguas son saladas ' (D. 1034, 1. 123); la mucha y ardiente arena (D. 1230, 31); la roja arena (D. 488, 1. 5), "las arenas frias" (264, 1. 3).
A small wood is always referred to as "una verde haya (Pr. 26, 1. 12); Pr. 123, D. 10, 1. 1; Pr. 182, D. 390, 1. 2; D. 391, 1. 2; D. 392, 1. 58.



Once "una verde espesura" (D. 1090, i. 1).
A few sources occur: "Fonte-frida, fonte-frida, fonte-frida y con amor" (Pr. 116, D. 1446, 1. 1, 2); "una fresca fonte" (Pr. 175, D. 382, 1. 409); "esa fuente fria" (ib., 1. 471).
The vegetable world is represented by: cypress, lily, orange, piant, pine, rose, branch, oak, ivy, and grass: "al cipres, que quiere subir al cielo (D. 896, 1. 31, 32); "el blanco lirio" (D. 587, 1. 8); "lirio cardeno" (D. 968, 1. 42); "una blanca flor de lis" (D. 969, 1. 9); "de donde muchos naranjeros sombra fresca le hacian" (D. 1141, 1. 55, 56); "las dulces plantas" (D. 587, 1. 43); "las humildes plantas (D. 648, 1. 42); "sus verdes hojas y plantas" (D. 112, 1. 8); "un verde pino" (D. 352, 1. 26; D. 368, 1. 37); "la nueva rosa (D. 587, 1. 7); Rosa fresca, rosa fresca, tan garrida y con amor" (Pr. 115, D. 1445, 1. 1; D. 1444, 1. 2); "una fresca rosa (Pr. 161a, D. 321, 1. 91); "estas verdes ramas" (D. 587, 1. 33); "Ay duro roble!" (D. 863, refrain); ' 'un roble, alto es a maravilla" (Pr. 151, D. 295, 1. 5, 6); "unos altos robles" (Pr. 165, D. 355, 1. 163); "las verdes yedras" (D. 585, 1. 14); "las yerbas estaban secas (D. 927, 1. 185); "las yerbas verdes" (Pr. 173, D. 377, 1. 521).
In the animal world we find: birds, beasts, horses, deer, elephants, falcons, gerfalcons, herons, lions, wolves, mules, fishes, dogs, serpents, bulls, and tigers: "las pintadas aves" (D. 598, 1. 1); "aves para volar" (Pr. 165, D. 355, 1. 6); "bestias salvajes" (D. 954, 1. 71); horses receive more epithets than anything else; "el caballo de cansado (Pr. 5, D. 599, 1. 9); "los belicosos caballos" (D. 632, 1. 53); "un caballo morcillo" (Pr. 12, D. 639, 1. 53; Pr. 43, 1. 4; D. 787, 1. 6; Pr. 47, D. 791, 1. 4; Pr. 93, D. 1121, 1. 79; Pr. 162, D. 1228, 1. 133; Pr. 48, 1. 4; Pr. 47b, D. 890, 1. 4; Pr. 87, D. 1095, 1. 3); "un caballo rabicano" (D. 645, 1. 6); "un tordillo caballo" (D. 645, 1. 40); "un caballo bien trabado de buen hierro, de color castano claro (D. 662, 1. 77, 78); "unos caballos blancos, hermosos en demasia (D. 696, 1. 108, 109); "un caballo muy preciado" (D. 698,1. 4);"lijero caballo" (Pr. 16, D. 703,1. 50; Pr. 189, D. 371,1. 10; D. 1179, 1. 43; D. 1049, 1. 41); "un rucio caballo" (D. 710, 1. 54); "un caballo muy hermoso" (D. 712, 1. 23); "caballo lijero" (Pr. 23, D. 680, 1. 9; Pr. 173, D. 377, 1. 405); "un caballo andaluz" (D. 692,



1. 43; D. 1139, 1. 85); Un caballo, blanco era y muy hermoso" (D. 749, 1. 63); "cien caballos, veinte blancos como arminos, y veinte rucios rodados, treinta te envian morcillos, y otros tantos filazanos" (D. 753, 1. 14—19); "caballos alazanos" (Pr. 41, 1. 3; (Pr. 42a, D. 775, 1. 4); "caballos rucios rodados" (Pr. 42, 1. 4); "caballo negro, de valor muy estimado" (D. 1109, 1. 15); caballo blanco" (D. 1120, 1. 14; D. 917, 1. 29); "caballo negro" (Pr. 93, D. 1121, 1. 15); "caballo bermejo" (D. 1130, 1. 65); un gran caballo" (Pr. 95, 1. 33); "un caballo castano" (D. 1132, 1. 71); "muy hermosos caballos" (D. 1136, 1. 27); "caballos de Turquia, muy mas blancos que le nieve, como el sol cuando salia, con las colas alinadas, y tambien la crineria" (D. 1148, 1. 6—10); lucidos caballos" (D. 1153,1. 34); "rucio rodado" (D. 1179, 1. 44); "fuertes caballos" (D. 1289, 1. 23); "un caballo que mucho le estimaba, muy crecido es y hermoso, cumplido, de buena mana, tanto, que yendo sobre el peligro no recelaba" (D. 1216, 1. 9—14); "un cavallo bayo" (D. 1123, 1. 30); "un morcillo muy rijoso" (Pr. 162, D. 228, 1. 34); "cien caballos blancos" (D. 1229, 1. 42); Babieca, el buen caballo, caballo tan afamado" (D. 885, 1. 26); tan buen caballo (ib., 1. 54); "si el caballo vos ha muerto, subid, Rey, en mi caballo; un tanto es blando de boca" (D. 981, 1. 9); "un gallardo caballo; de color rucio tordillo" (D. 1035, 1. 51, 52); "un caballo alezano (Pr. 82, D. 1047, 1. 18); "el caballo era lijero" (ib., 1. 51); muy bravos caballos llevan, a la gineta ensillados" (Pr. 82a, D. 1048, 1. 17, 18); "tanto caballo alezano" (ib., 1. 60); ' un buen caballo (D 1049 1 10); "el caballo era lijero" (ib., 1. 41); su caballo, que le dicen Boca-Negra" (Pr. 77, D. 1075, 1. 43, 44); "un caballo castano muy preciado que tenia" (D. 1090, 1. 5, 6); un gran caballo" (D. 1092, 1. 31); "en un caballo ruano poderoso a maravilla, amenazando los vientos con la furia que traia"(D. 1094,
1. 87 91); "cien caballos de piel blanca" (D. 1231,1. 4); un caballo
overo" (Pr 128, D. 5, 1. 12); "en un caballo lijero" (ib., 1. 18); "un caballo muy lijero" (Pr. 135, D. 327, 1. 105); "un caballo relinchador" (Pr. 136a, D. 299, 1. 47); "una blanca hacanea (Pr. '49 D 293 1 17); "un caballo corredor" (Pr. 150, D. 294, 1. 4); "un brioso caballo" (Pr. 161a, D. 321, 1. 111); "buen caballo" (Pr. 165, D. 355, 1. 47); "el caballo era de casta (ib., 1. 85); por



un rocin mal domado" (Pr. 167, D. 357, 1. 80); "el caballo es esforzado" (Pr. 173, D. 377, 1. 385); "el caballo era lijero" (ib., 1. 405); "un caballo alezane" (ib., 1. 512); "una hacanea blanca" (Pr. 178, 1. 273); "una zebra" (Pr. 183, D. 394, 1. 19); "el caballo es alazan" (Pr. 185, 1. 34; Pr. 185a, 1. 62); "su poderoso caballo" (Pr. 189, D. 37-1, 1. 10); "en su lijero caballo" (ib., 1. 252); "tu fuerte caballo" (ib., 1. 266); "buen caballo" (ib., 1. 363); "un rico caballo (Pr. 190, D. 362, 1. 27); "un caballo alazan" (Pr. 192, 1 214); "encima una yegua blanca" (Pr. 55, D 858, 1. 4); "la yegua que era lijera" (ib., 1. 59); "cuanto de yegua baya" (D. 1046, 1. 20); "tanto yegua overo" (Pr. 82a, D. 1048, 1. 20); "una yegua tordilla" (D. 1125, 1. 30); "una yegua baya" (D. 1137, 1. 16); "en una yegua hermosa, rucia rodada (D. 1149, 1. 20); "en una yegua hermosa, rucia y manchada" (D. 386, 1. 20); "una gruesa mula" (Pr. 16, D. 703, 1. 49). Of a deer I found but one instance: ,,el ciervo era muy lijero (Pr. 165, D. 355, 1. 51); likewise of elephants: "elefantes muy feroces" (D. 1148, 1. 59), of falcons: "reales halcones" (D. 1149, 1. 51), gerfalcons: "un gerifalte torzuelo" (ib., 1. 56), and herons: "una garza muy hermosa y en buen lance" (ib., 1. 57). Lions are more plentiful: "un leon bravo" (Pr. 29, D. 731, 1. 70); ' un gran leon" (D. 890, 1. 129); "dos leones muy feroces" (D. 948, 1. 55); "cual de leon desatado" (D. 954, 1. 30); "el leon es muy fuerte" (ib., 1. 145); "el bravo leon humilde" (ib., 1. 180); "como leon denodado (Pr. 82, D. 1047, 1. 60); ' como leones rabiando" (Pr. 82a, D. 1048, 1. 78); "como leon denodado" (D. 1049, 1. 50); "cual leon encarnizado" (D. 1097, 1. 96); "como un leon atrevido" (Pr. 91, 1. 32); "leones mirando, cuyos rostros y figuras ponian temor y espanto" (Pr. 134, D. 1131, 1. 18—20); "bravos leones" (D. 1148, 1. 61); "un gran leon" (ib., 1. 120); "leon bravo" (D. 1188, 1. 162); "el gran leon" (D. 1212, 1. 60); "leones desatados" (D. 396, 1. 24). Wolves are mentioned three times: "el hambriente lobo" (D. 632, 1. 95); "como lobo encarnizado" (D. 983, 1. 8); "tres lobos viejos" (D. 1067, 1. 3). Fishes are once represented as sighing over the bad weather: "los peces daban gemidos por el mal tiempo que hacia" (Pr. 5a, d. 602, 1. 3). The following dogs occur: "un perro negro" (Pr. 66, D. 970, 1. 32); "los perros de los moros" (D. 1148, 1. 169); "perros para cazar" (Pr. 165, D. 355, 1. 8);



"perros de la calle" (D. 322, 1. 59). A serpent is mentioned twice in one ballad: "Una sierpe brava y fiera, la cual era de gran cuerpo, lijera mas que un caballo" (D. 954, 1. 59); "la sierpe engrifada y fiera" (ib., 1. 163); evidently a terrible dragon is meant. Tigers occur three times: "tigre hircana" (D. 967, 1. 20); bella tigre de la hircania" (D. 971, 1. 6); "tigres y onzas de osadia" (D. 1148, 1. 60). Bulls occur twice: "un toro, el mas fiero y bravo" (D. 718, !. 14); "un toro feroz" (D. 720, 1. 31).
2. The Heavenly World.
The only traces of heathenism are to be found in the mention of fairies and auguries: "tus malos hados (Pr. 5a, D. 602, 1. 21), "el hado avaro" (D. 692, 1. 30); un hado precioso (D. 1035, 1. 134); "mal aguëro" (D. 588, 1. 28; Pr. 66, D. 970, 1. 10); "el
funeste aguëro" (D. 490, 1. 2).
Further the Christian spirit reigns supreme: "Dios del cielo" (Pr. 173, D. 377, 1. 373; Pr. 186, D. 402, 1. 33, 77; Pr. 195, D. 191, 1 35- Pr. 189, D. 371, 1. 341; Pr. 171, D. 374, 1. 25, 51; D. 982, 1. 17;' Pr. 82a, D. 1048, 1. 44; Pr. 131, 1. 23, 33; D. 258. 1. 31, 43); "su Dios soberano" (D. 892, 1. 17); "Dios soberano" (Pr. 64, D. 960, 1. 76); "al omnipotente Dios" (D. 991, 1. 31); en alto Dios" (D. 1104,1. 27); "poderoso Rey del Cielo" (D. 1188, 1. 157); "oh alto Dios y Senor nuestro" (D. 1209, 1. 70); "el Dios de los Cielos" (Pr. 129, 1. 13); "oh alto Dios poderoso" (Pr. 165, D. 355, 1. 251, 743); "Dios todopoderoso" (Pr. 178, 1. 505); mi dulce Tesus" (D. 1163, 1. 47); "dulcisimo Jesus mio" (D. 1207, 1. 1 ); "Jesus, Jesus, Jesus bueno" (D. 1209, 1. 82); "muy alto Jesucristo" (Pr. 189, D. 371, 1. 305); "la santa Trinidade" (Pr. 135, D. 327, 1. 24, 38); "la Santa Soledad" (ib., 1. 66); la Santa Trinidad (Pr. 188, D. 369, 1. 132); "la Semana Santa" (D. 610, 1. 4); desde el miércoles corvillo hasta el jueves de la Cena" (Pr. 64, D. 960, 1. 5, 16). Saints are frequently mentioned, usually to indicate the time of the year: "Dia era de San Juan" (Pr. 175, D. 382, 1. 508; Pr 186 D 402 1. 54, 90); "vispera de San Juan" (D. 368, 1. 96); "vispera de Sant Cebrian" (Pr. 24, 1. 2); "Sant Miguel vos haya el alma" (Pr. 36, D. 763, 1. 2); "San Jorge y Santiago (Pr. 41, 1. 58); "A San Jorge y San Roman, y a Santiago el de Espana



(D. 793, 1. 11, 12); "Dia era de San Millan" (Pr. 49, D. 795, 1. 7); "al santo y divino Pedro" (D. 869, 1. 2); "vispera de Santa Maria" (D. 953, 1. 148); "A San Pedro y San Pablo" (Pr. 64, D. 960, 1. 80); "Alapóstal Santiago" (ib., 1. 82); "Santa Maria la Blanca" (D. 990, 1. 2); "la manana de Sant Joan" (Pr. 75, D. 1045, 1. 1; Pr. 192, 1. 14); Dia es de San Anton, este santo senalado" (Pr. 82, D. 1047, 1. 1); Un dia de Sant Anton (D. 1049, 1. 1); "Manana de Sant Juan (D. 1132, 1. 65; D. 1136, 1. 3); Dia era de San Jorge, San Jorge nuestro abogado al proto-martyr Estevan" (D. 1231, 1. 41); "Manana de Sant Juane" (D. 1233, 1. 24; Pr. 121, D. 7,1. 18; Pr. 133, D. 1233,1. 24; Pr. 153, D. 286, 1. 4); "mananica de Sant Juane" (Pr. 124, D. 8, 1. 14); "Vispera de San Juane" (Pr. 165, D. 355, 1. 14).
The Spaniard was expected to be a good and warlike Christian, whose duty it was to expel the Moor: a guisa de buen cristiano" (D. 954, 1. 128); buenos cristianos (Pr. 73, 1. 38); los valerosos cristianos (D. 1168, 1. 61); "los cristianos belicosos" (D. 1188, 1, 229); "como fiel y buen cristiano" (D. 1195, 1. 18); "el católico cristiano (D. 1246, 1. 22); the fair sex need only be gracious: mucha linda cristiana (Pr. 88a, D. 1102, 1. 94); "una cristiana muy linda (Pr. 130, 1. 16); the term "cristiano perro" (Pr. 128, D. 5, 1. 24) is uttered by a mere Moor.
The canon for Christian behaviour is referred to as the divine law: la divina ley (D. 604, 1. 31); "nuestra ley consagrada" (D. 1084, 1. 10); "la ley divina" (Pr. 167, D. 357, 1. 51); if not according to divine law, one behaved at least according to "la ley de buen caballero (Pr. 134, D. 1131, 1. 61); or "la ley de amores" (D. 1452, 1. 8); the Moors were "de otra ley" (D. 721, 1. 31), obeying "la ley de Mahomed" (Pr. 188, D. 369, 1. 142).
The desirability of leading a good or holy life is pointed out: muy santa vida (Pr. 7, D. 606, 1. 24); 'buena y limpia vida" (D. 616, 1. 23); "honesta vida muy santa" (D. 721, 1. 60); "hombre de muy santa vida, de letras y buena fama" (D. 911, 1. 31, 32); "padres de santa vida" (D. 1196, 1. 128); "la santa vida" (Pr. 147, D. 351, 1. 34); "muy santa vida" (Pr. 165, D. 355, 1. 495); "vida santa (Pr. 175, D. 382, 1. 490); life was acknowledged to be hard and sad: "aquesta triste vida" (D. 895, 1. 46); "su vida amarga"



(D. 971, 1. 8); "me es la vida tan dura" (D. 1015, 1. 14); "mala vida" (Pr. 96a, D. 1086, 1. 22); "dabeme la vida mala, dabeme la vida dura' (D. 258, 1. 25, 26; Pr. 131, 1. 15, 16); "muy mala vida" (Pr. 142, D. 1459,1. 27); "tan triste vida" (Pr. 164, D. 354, 1. 291); "la triste vida" (ib., 1. 324); mala vida (Pr- 169, D. 358, 1. 490, Pr. 196, D. 289,1. 3); "la vida infame" (D. 397, 1. 22); longing was sometimes feit for "la otra vida" (D. 1196, 1. 40, 52); "la vida eterna" (D. 1207, 1. 12).
As to the clergy, one Archbishop is mentioned; though this Don Oppas was "en letras bien ensenado" (D. 607, 1. 72), he later proved to be "el Arzobispo traidor" (D. 608, 1. 85). Several religious orders are referred to: "en órden sacra (D. 623, 1. 3; Pr. 12, D. 639, 1. 38); "dos frailes de San Francisco, que es la órden menor" (D. 1205, 1. 45, 46); "del órden carmelitano, planta del monte Carmelo" (D. 1210, 1. 19, 20); "órden de San Bernardo" (Pr. 165, D. 355, 1. 791). Monks are mentioned with respect: "aquesos benditos monjes" (Pr. 16, D. 703, 1. 14); el santo monje (D. 710, 1. 12); "monjes de santa vida" (D. 1217, 1. 68); Monje era Don Ramiro, santo de muy buena vida (D. 1219, 1. 11, 12), "monje benito" (D. 1220, 1. 12); nuns are mentioned once: "las monjas de Santa Ana con las de la Trinidad (Pr. 190, D. 362, 1. 177, 178); a monastery is described as "un monasterio honrado (Pr. 61a, D. 922, 1. 6). Friars are similarly dealt with: "un fraile capilludo" (D. 1102, Pr. 88a, 1. 51); "ese fraile capilludo" (Pr. 89, 1. 93); "fraile de muy santa vida" (Pr. 162, D. 1228, 1. 68); el buen fraile" (ib., 1. 82), and so are hermits: "una ermita sagrada" (D. 701, 1. 6); "un virtuoso ermita" (Pr. 175, D. 382, 1. 451).
The words 'iglesia' and 'templo' are both used, the former to indicate the Church as an institution, the latter to indicate the church buildings: "la iglesia mayor" (Pr. 14, 1. 25); "la sacra iglesia" (D. 1142, 1. 8); "la iglesia militante" (D. 1148, 1. 189; D. 1150, 1. 249); "la santa iglesia" (D. 1196, 1. 139); "aquel templo tan lodada del senor San Salvador" (D. 614, 1. 77, 78); un templo rico y solemne, de San Salvador llamado" (D. 615, 1. 39); un templo honrado" (ib., 1. 86); "un templo el cual todo era de piedra, muy ricamente labrado" (D. 616, 1. 17, 18); templos senalados (D. 1198, 1. 196).



3. The Nether World.
Mahomed was naturally consigned to Heil, even if he was admitted to be "gran profeta" (D. 1189, 1. 39; D. 1190, 1. 87); for he was "Mahomud, el malvado" (D. 615, 1. 100); "el infame Mahoma (D. 1197, 1. 95); Mahoma! Mirad que es profeta falso" (D. 1198, 1. 10).
We can also class here the "hados" mentioned above: likewise dreams, which are always unpleasant, foreboding dire events; "un mal sueno (Pr. 6, D. 600, 1. 48); "un sueno despavorido" (Pr. 161, D. 320, 1. 16); "un triste sueno" (Pr. 164, D. 354, 1. 331); un gran sueno (Pr. 175, D. 355, 1. 508, 644); 'un triste y mal sueno (Pr. 175, D. 382, 1. 127); "tal sueno como este no puede ser sino mal (ib., 1. 145, 146); un sueno de gran pesar" (Pr. 184, D. 400, 1. 18); exceptions are: "el dulce sueno profundo" (D. 1035, 1. 151); "al mejor sueno que duermo" (Pr 197 D 1 1. 19).
The Jews, "los judios como malos" are considered as future inmates of Heil along with the perros moros mentioned above.
4. Persons. a. Family relationship.
b. Ranks of society.
c. Professions.
The father was regarded with great respect: "Muy ilustre senor padre" (D. 591, 1. 11); "padre honrado" (D. 624, 1. 15); "padre amado" (ib., 1. 64); "legitimo padre" (D. 633, 1. 35); "padre amado" (D. 663, 1. 9); "padre honrado" (D. 683, 1. 13); "un padre tan estimado" (D. 862, 1. 100); "mi padre viejo" (D. 1200, 1. 15); padre de toda mi alma (Pr. 135, D. 327, 1. 23); "el padre viejo" (Pr. 163, D. 365, 1. 337); "padre carnal" (Pr. 166, D. 366, 1. 126); it was fatal to be "hijo de mal padre" (Pr. 13, 1. 35; Pr. 13a D. 654, 1. 64).
Them other played a subordinate part: 'madre desconsolada" (Pr. 100, 1. 63); "madre muy amada" (Pr. 144, 1. 22); "mi madre natural (Pr. 165, D. 355, 1. 356); "la triste madre" (ib., 1. 453).
Sons were of importance: "mis hijos naturales" (Pr. 24, 1. 30); "hijo amado" (Pr. 28, D. 726, 1. 46); "hijo del alma" (D. 730, 1. 39); "hijos amados" (Pr. 49, D. 795, 1. 18); "hijo tierno" (D. 979,



1 46); "su caro hijo, animoso y esforzado" (D. 1186, 1. 61, 62); 'hijos mios de mi alma" (D. 1206, 1. 26); "hijos pequenos" (Pr. 164, D. 354, 1. 359); "hijo soy suyo carnal" (Pr. 165, D. 355, 1. 352); "tu propio hijo carnal" (Pr. 166, D. 356, 1. 90); su ümco hijo carnal" (ib., 1. 154); "vuestro hijo natural" (Pr. 172, D. 375, 1. 78); "hijos chicos" (Pr. 174, 1. 40); "mi hijo muy amado" (Pr. 177 1 155); exceptions are; "un traidor hijo" (D. 360, 1. 4) and "mi'hijo mal logrado" (D. 370. 1. 334). It may be added that the
plural, hijos, can mean "children". ft
Daughters are valued to some extent: "como hija muy querida (D. 591, 1. 14): "mi cuitada hija" (D. 592, 1. 24); quien buena hija tiene, rico se debe llamar" (Pr. 117, D. 317, 1. 13, 14); su hija bonita" (Pr. 129, 1. 11); "oh hija de mis entranas" (ib., 1. 18); "hija querida" (Pr. 135, D. 327, 1. 21); "buena hija" (Pr. 159, D 328, 1. 2); "mi hija carnale" (Pr. 173, D. 377, 1. 20); hija de poco edad" (Pr. 188, D. 369, 1. 26); "vuestra hija natural" (Pr.
192- 1 V- AU
The sister's son does not play the important part occupied by
him in Germanic ballads; once the term occurs: "ques hijo de
vuestra hermana" (D. 620, 1. 50).
The brother is referred to as: "un hermano tan querido (D. 1035, 1. 68); "hermano amado" (D. 1186, 1. 54); buen hermano" (D. 1188, 1. 75), and sisters as; „hermosa hermana" (Pr. 8, D. 619, 1. 3); "su hermana carnale" (Pr. 164, D. 354, 1. 3094); "de tres hermanos que tengo, darte he yo la mas garrida (Pr.
164, D. 354, 1. 12).
Husbands receive fewer epithets than wives, perhaps because
they were less subject to criticism: "vuesto marido honrado Pr. 6,
D 600 1 32); "vuestro marido amado" (Pr. 156, D. 318, 1. 41);
"el marido tengo viejo" (Pr. 157. D. 290, 1. 17); "vuestro marido
carnale" (Pr. 164, D. 354, 1. 856); wives have a number of epithets,
but it must be borne in mind that "mujer" can mean "woman" as
well as "wife": "mala mujer" (Pr. 12, D. 639, 1. 28); "mujer mala
(ib., 1. 34); "mujer es de gran estado" (D. 667, 1. 8); sus buenas
mujeres" (D. 883, 1. 7); "una mala mujer" (Pr. 65, D. 966, 1. 107);
"falsa, indigna mujer" (D. 1035, 1. 101); "una gallarda mujer,
discreta en grado notable" (D. 1225, 1. 19, 20); "mujer naturale



(Pr. 104, D. 1243, 1. 44); "mujer hermosa" (Pr. 115, D. 1445, 1. 15); "por mujer y por igual" (Pr. 133, D. 1233, 1. 12); "tu mujer verdadera" (Pr. 135, D. 327, 1. 101); "gentil mujer" (Pr. 145, 1. 8); "mujer hermosa" (Pr. 164, D. 354, 1. 35, 109, 357, 1043); "mujer natural" (Pr. 185, D. 402, 1. 26; Pr. 192, 1. 200); "la mas linda mujer del mundo" (Pr. 188, D. 369, 1. 15).
One bastard is mentioned on account of his valour; "un muy valiente bastardo" (D. 1054, 1. 24).
b. Numerous ranks of society make their appearance: emperor, king, queen, infante and infanta, duke, count, hidalgo, knight (caballero), lady, damsel, squire (mancebo and zagal), page, vassal, and slave. The title "emperador" only occurs in the Carolingian romances, referring to Charlemagne: "emperador coronado" (D. 638, 1. 12); "el gran emperador" (Pr. 162, D. 1228, 1. 11); "muy alto emperador" (Pr. 166, D. 356, 1. 55); "sacra real majestad" (ib., 1. 56); "a tu sacra majestad" (ib., 1. 80, 272); "gran emperador (Pr. 177a, D. 370, 1. 110); "aquel alto emperador" (Pr. 178, 1. 160, 366); "noble emperador" (D. 368, 1. 45); "el gran emperador (Pr. 189, D. 371, 1. 5); "emperador coronado" (ib., 1. 386); "al buen viejo emperador" (Pr. 193, 1. 417; D. 373, 1. 415). The empress is once referred to as La noble Emperatriz" (Pr. 162, D. 356, 1. 55).
The epithets afforded to kings vary considerably; "noble" and "good" occur frequently, as in English and Scottish ballads:
Roderick the last of the Goths is called rey tirano y aleve" and "el torpe rey" by Count Julian (D. 592, 1. 31), but "el buen rey Rodrigo (Pr. 61a, D. 922, 1. 18) and "aquese rey afamado" (D. 607, 1. 50 ( when his memory is celebrated in later ballads. His successor, Don Pelayo, "el godo infante Pelayo" (D. 608, 1. 2) then becomes "rey jurado" (ib., 1. 32), and is referred to after his death as "ese buen rey Don Pelayo" (Pr. 61a, D. 922, 1. 18). Bermudo I of Leon receives the post-mortem epithet of "muy bueno y muy esforzado (D. 613, 1. 8). He was succeeded by Alfonso the Chaste, "Alonso el Casto" (D. 613, 1. 68); "Don Alfonso, el que Casto era llamado (D. 614, 1. 1, 2); he was "casto y bien fortunato (ib., 1. 8), "muy bien acondicionado, de todos bienes cumplido, de virtudes adornado. Entre los bienes que habia, era



piadoso y manso" (ib., 1. 10—15); he was also valeroso y esforzado" (ib., 1. 20); the same ballad makes mention of "el santo rey Don Pelayo" (1. 72) and of "Don Rodrigo, el Rey malaventurado" (1. 78). In ballads dealing with the Cid. Alfonso is called "este noble rey" (D. 621, 1. 6); "muy rico y muy honrado" (D. 631, 1. 6): "poderoso rey" (D. 636, 1. 5). Ramiro I of Castille is "el noble rey Don Ramiro" (D. 617, 1. 3); "el buen rey" (D. 618, 1. 55). Sancho the Fat of Leon is "Sancho el Gordo" (D. 712, 1. 2), but at the same time "el muy esforzado (D. 714, 1. 2). Ferdinand I, under whom Castille became a kingdom, later surnamed "el Magno", is unanimously called good and noble in the ballads. "el buen rey" (D. 734, 1. 1); "al buen rey" (D. 731, 1. 2); "aquese buen rey Fernando" (D. 749, 1. 2); "este noble rey Fernando" (Pr. 34, D. 756, 1. 4); "ese buen rey Don Fernando" (Pr. 35, 1. 2); "el noble rey Don Fernando" (D. 761, 1. 3). Sancho II of Castille, later surnamed "el Valiente" (D. 907, 1. 2) is "buen rey" (Pr. 46. D. 779, 1. 5, 39, 52); "el malogrado Don Sancho (D. 783, 1. 5); "famoso Rey" (ib.. 1. 41); "al valiente rey Don Sancho" (D. 785, Pr. 53, 1. 4; D. 789, Pr. 48, 1. 4); "al buen rey" (D. 792, 1. 87). Alfonso VI of Leon is likewise "buen rey" (D. 811, 1. 12; D. 812, Pr. 52, 1. 35): "poderoso rey Alfonso" (D. 845, 1. 9); buen rey (Pr. 60, 1. 3); "el buen rey Alfonso" (D. 883, 1. 2); aquese buen rey Alfonso" (D. 885, 1. 5); "el noble rey Don Alfonso" (D. 887, 1. 5); "aquese buen rey Alfonso" (D. 888, 1. 1); furthermore "Don Alfonso es muy hermoso, de grandes dotes dotado" (D. 910, 1. 31, 32); he is "ese buen rey Don Alfonso, el de la mano horadora (D. 911, 1. 1, 2); finally "por ser el rey muy bueno, su muerte fué muy llorado" (D. 917, 1. 3, 4). His daughter and heiress Dona Urraca is acknowledged by a faithful Count as "mi senora natural (D. 917, 1. 47) and "su natural senora" (ib., 1. 63). Alfonso VII is "buen rey" (D. 918, 1. 5) and "honrado rey" (ib., 1. 15), besides being surnamed "el emperador" (ib., 1. 1). Sancho III of Castille was surnamed "el Deseado" (D. 920, 1. 2, D. 928, 1. 2) and after his death he was "muy llorado" (ib., 1. 4); he was succeeded by the great king Alfonso VIII: "el buen rey" (D. 920, 1. 1); el buen rey Don Alonso el Deseado" (Pr. 61a, D. 922, 1. 1, 2); buen rey" (ib.. 1. 43); "deseado a maravilla, que su bondad fuera tanta



que decirse no podria" (D. 923, 1. 4—6). Enrique I died youngr "el tierno rey" (D. 930, 1. 25). Ferdinand III of Castille and Leon was surnamed the Saint: "el Santo rey Don Fernando, de tan alta nombradia (D. 936, 1. 1,2); el buen rey Don Fernando" (D. 932, 1. 1); "al Santo rey Don Fernando" (D. 937, 1. 5). His son Alfonso X was the famous Alfonso the Wise: "el sabio rey Don Alfonso" (D. 938, 1. 1); "el buen rey de Castilla" (D. 939, 1. 4); Don Alonso el Sabio (D. 940, 1. 4); "el noble rey Alfonso (D. 941, 1. 1); "rey liberal y franco" (D. 946, 1. 26); "ese buen rey" (D. 950, 1. 33, 42); "sabio por todos llamado" (D. 946, 1. 2); finally "el viejo rey Alfonso" (Pr. 63, D. 951, 1. 1). He was succeeded by his son Sancho IV the Ferocious, "el Bravo": "el buen rey (D. 955, 1. 3, 74), and Sancho's son was Ferdinand IV, the Assigned, "el Emplazado": "el buen rey Don Fernando" (Pr. 64, D. 960, 1. 3); "el inclito Fernando" (D. 962, 1. 19). Alfonso XI was called el de Algeciras for having conquered this city (D. 964, 1. 2). His successor was Peter the Cruel, Don Pedro I de Castilla, llamado el Cruel: oh rey cruel, injusto, rey severo y firano" (D. 971, 1. 53, 54); "rey severo" (ib., 1. 73); "el cruel Don Pedro (D. 978, 1. 3); "Pedro tirano y ciego" (D. 979, 1. 43).
Henry of Trastamara's son, Juan I, was succeeded by his son Enrique III, the Infirm: "el enfermo rey Enrique" (D. 982, 1. 1). The latter's son was Juan II: "el buen rey" (Pr. 70, D. 984, 1. 2); "Yo el famoso rey Don Juan, segundo de aqueste nombre" (D. 995, 1. 13, 14); "por este buen rey Don Juan que el segundo se decia" (D. 1053, 1. 1, 2). His son Enrique IV, surnamed El Impotente, is referred to as "rey no bien afortunado" (D. 1022, 1. 4). He was deposed, and after the death of his brother Alfonso, their sister Isabella the Catholic was acknowledged as heir to the throne: la católica Isabella (D. 1123, 1. 1); la ilustre reina Dona Isabel (D. 1137, 1. 11). She and her consort, Fernando the Catholic, dethroned Juan de Albret, king of Navarre: "el triste Don Juan" (Pr. 98, D. 1021, 1. 4). Fernando gets his full share of praise from the poplar muse: "el Católico Fernando" (D. 1027, 1. 2; D. 1076. 1. 10); rey poderoso' (D. 1034, 1. 10); "de los reyes el mejor" (D. 1057,1. 51); "santo, bueno y virtuoso" (ib., 1. 53); "tan querido y deseado" (ib., 1. 58); "al Católico Fernando" (D. 1097, 1. 54);



"rey tan sublimado" (D. 1120, 1. 76); "el prudente rey" (ib., 1. 81).
In the kingdom of Granada, the contemporary of Juan II was the socalled Left-handed King: "el tirano Rey Izquierdo" (D. 1052, 1. 57), Muhammed VIII. Abu-l-Hasan, who conquered Zahara, is called "el rey moro" (Pr. 85a, D. 1064, 1. 1); this Abu-l-Hasan, the "old king", was opposed by his brother Zaghal, the Valient , and by his son Abü Abd-Allah, or Boabdil, the Little King, who is the subject of many ballads dealing with the fall of Granada: "el rey Chico de Granada (D. 113, 1. 2; D. 116, 1. 4; D. 117, 1. 4; Pr. 92a, D. 1081, 1. 1); "el rey chiquito" (D. 1070, 1. 4); 'oh desventurado rey' (D. 1082, 1. 69); el rey moro congojoso (D. 1083, 1. 11); "el invencible rey Chico" (D. 1097, 1. 3); del rey Chico de Granada" (D. 1137, 1. 60); "su buen rey, tan amado y tan querido" (Pr. 91, 1. 53, 54).
Francis I of France occurs in two ballads: "el triste rey (D. 1140, 1. 151); "el rey frances" (D. 1141, 1. 90). Montezuma of Mexico is addressed by Cortés as "rey poderoso" (D. 1145, 1. 63).
Philip II is praised as: "claro rey de nuestra Espana (D. 1156, 1. 36); "rey poderoso" (D. 1186, 1. 21); "el buen monarca" (D. 1196, 1. 32); "el buen rey" (ib., 1. 72, 73); "este católico rey" (ib., 1. 237); "de Espana rey sublimado" (D. 1197, 1. 2).
The term of politeness "buen rey" occurs in many un-historical ballads: Pr. 114a, D. 145, 1. 21; Pr. 129, 1. 14; Pr. 150, D. 294, 1. 46, 58; Pr. 151, D. 295, 1. 13; Pr. 160, D. 1889, 1. 16; Pr. 161a, D. 321, 1. 45, 54, etc.; Pr. 163, D. 365, 1. 29, 33, etc.; Pr. 175, D. 382, 1. 72.
Leaving the theme of kings, at last, we can now deal with the infantes and infantes: "infantes de gran valia" (Pr. 22, D. 678, 1. 46); "los valerosos infantes" (D. 679, 1. 5); aquel valeroso infante" (D. 985, 1. 9); "el valeroso infante" (D. 1078, 1. 47); el infante vengador" (Pr. 150, D. 294, 1. 2); "este esclarecido infante" (Pr. 178, 1. 154); "la infanta fermosa y cumplida, animosa y muy discreta, de persona muy crecida" (Pr. 15, D. 700, 1. 20 22); "noble infanta" (D. 792, 1. 37); "la linda infanta" (Pr. 118, D. 4, 1. 1); "la infanta era discreta" (Pr. 188, D. 369, 1. 95); la linda infanta Sevilla" (Pr. 193, D. 373, 1. 10); "la grande infanta Sevilla" (ib., 1. 34).



A few Dukes occur: "un honrado Duque" (Pr. 34, D. 756, 1. 27); "del buen Duque" (Pr. 108, D. 1242, 1. 3; D. 1254, 1. 5).
A good many Counts are mentioned: "el falso Conde maldito" (D. 609, 1. 21); "el Conde traidor" (D. 611, 1. 1); "dos valerosos Condes" (D. 621, 1. 25); "el buen Conde" (D. 624, 1. 33); "condes de gran estado (Pr. 10, D. 634, 1. 18); "el gran conde de Castilla" (Pr. 15, D. 700, 1. 1); "buen Conde Fernan Gonzalez" (Pr. 17, D. 704, 1. 1); "el buen conde castellano" (D. 705, 1. 4; D. 706, 1. 2); "el valeroso conde" (D. 708, 1. 29); "al valiente conde" (D. 1139, 1. 176); "el buen conde" (Pr. 162, D. 1228, 1. 121; Pr. 163, D. 365, 1. 172; Pr. 164, D. 354, 1. 125; Pr. 166, D. 356, 1. 3; Pr. 175, D. 382, 1. 45); "el buen conde aleman" (Pr. 170, D. 305, 1. 3).
The typically Spanish title of hidalgo, or hijo dalgo occurs with frequency, though not so often as the term caballero: "el valiente hijo dalgo" (D. 727, 1. 24); "hidalgos muy honrados" (D. 843, 1. 16); "valientes hidalgos" (D. 945, 1. 12); "otros nobles hijos dalgo" (D. 933, 1. 8); "hidalgo moro" (D. 1046, 1. 19); "el noble hidalgo" (Pr. 82, D. 1047, 1. 24); "valientes hijosdalgo" (D. 1094, 1. 23); "tanto buen hijo dalgo" (Pr. 134, D. 1131, 1. 58); "un hidalgo honrado, fuérte y aspero en la lid" (D. 1213, 1. 6, 7); "como noble hijo dalgo" (D. 1235, 1. 108).
The knight, or caballero, receives as much attention as his horse: caballero lucido ' (D. 632, 1. 52); "que buen caballero" (Pr. 20, D. 666, 1. 1); D. 909, 1. 3; Pr. 63, D. 951, 1. 45; D. 955, 1. 87; Pr. 81, D. 1041, 1. 73; Pr. 147, D. 351, 1. 53; Pr. 88, 88a, D. 1102, 1. 1; Pr. 88b, D. 1103, 1. 1; Pr. 189, D. 371, 1. 277); "caballeros de alto estado" (D. 667, 1. 28); "caballeros de valia" (D. 669, 1. 10); "gran caballero esforzado" (Pr. 24, 1. 63); "buen caballero" (D. 744, 1. 45; D. 792, 1. 39); "caballero preciado" (Pr. 49, D. 795, i. 2S); "caballero honrado" (Pr. 50a, 1. 14); "mal caballero probado" (Pr. 52, D. 812, 1. 48); "caballero honrado" (D. 816, 1. 23); "caballero a la gineta" (Pr. 55, D. 858, 1. 3); "caballero estimaao" (D. 915, 1. 7); "muy nobles caballeros, valientes a maravilla" (D. 936, 1. 7, 8); "dos caballeros preciados" (D. 1025, 1. 4); "este noble caballero" (D. 1033, 1. 3); "valeroso caballero" (D. 1035, 1. 243; D. 1132, 1. 9; D. 1135, 1. 13); "católico caballero" (D. 1036,



1. 97); "caballero principal" (Pr. 81, D. 1041, 1. 66; D. 1042, 1. 11); "caballero muy preciado" (D. 1055, 1. 32); caballero animoso (D. 1074, 1. 25; D. 1235, 1. 65); "valiente caballero" (D. 1094, 1. 333; D. 1236, 1. 15); "caballero moro" (Pr. 87, D. 1095, 1. 31); "buen caballero estimado" (D. 1109, 1. 52); "caballero muy honrado" (Pr. 134, D. 1131, 1. 38); "nobles caballeros" (D. 1205, 1. 25); "caballero hermoso" (D. 1216, 1. 61); "buenos caballeros" (Pr. 104, D. 1243, 1. 9; Pr. 164, D. 354, 1. 577, 1063, 4001; Pr. 189, D. 371, 1. 282); "un gallardo caballero" (Pr. 263, 1. 5); "caballero gentil" (Pr. 142, D. 1459, 1. 22); "caballero a la gineta" (Pr. 150, D. 294, 1. 3); "caballero con harnés" (Pr. 156, D. 318, 1. 28); "esforzados caballeros' (Pr. 164, D. 354, 1. 253, 345, 377, etc.; Pr. 192, 1. 249); "tan alto caballero" (Pr. 165, D. 355, 1. 240; Pr. 189, D. 371, 1. 309); "caballeros son de estimo, de grande estado y linaje" (Pr. 166, D. 356, 1. 15, 16); "buen caballero probado" (Pr. 168, D. 359, 1. 3); "mal caballero probado" (ib„ 1. 24); "caballero honrado" (D. 370, 1. 356); "mal caballero" (D. 367, 1. 121); "valerosos caballeros" (D. 367, 1. 355); caballeros galanes" (D. 368. 1. 221); "oh los nobles caballeros" (D. 368, i. 403); "caballero leal" (Pr. 188, D. 369, 1. 136).
Ladies are esteemed chiefly for beauty: 'lindas damas (Pr. 25, 1 108); "la bella dama" (D. 759, 1. 10); "linda dama" (D. 1051, 17; D. 368, 1. 125); "dama de valor y estado" (Pr. 134, D. 1131,
6); "una bella dama" (D. 1139, 1. 180); "muy lindas damas" (D. 1141, 1. 143); "las damas mas hermosas" (D, 1173, 1. 5); una dama muy hermosa, de gentil disposicipn (D. 1224, 1. 45, 46), "la dama hermosa" (D. 245, 1. 49); "dames lindas, hermosas" (D. 1369, 69); "la gentil dama" (Pr. 145, 1. 1); "la triste dama" (Pr. 146a 1 16); "damas cristianas" (D. 380, 1. 52); sendas damas las mas lindas del palacio" (Pr. 177a, D. 370, 1. 343, 344); "dama hermosa" (Pr. 178, 1. 203); "dama real" (D. 363, 1. 125); "la mas hermosa dama de toda la Moreria" (Pr. 193, D. 373, 1. 31, 32); maidens are regarded similarly: "una gallarda doncella, de amable y hermoso gesto" (D. 617, 1. 7, 8); "gentil doncella" (D. 736, 1. 45); "una doncella reluciente como estrella (Pr. 54, D. 816, 1. 4); "la doncella muy fermosa" (Pr. 55, D. 858. 1. 33); una tierna doncella, de admirable perfeccion, tan honesta como noble



(D. 985, 1. 13—15); "una cristiana doncella" (D. 1179, 1. 26); "una doncella al parecer celestial" (D. 1234, 1. 35, 36): "una doncella muy hermosa y muy cortés" (Pr. 119, D. 296, 1. 9, 10); "la doncella que era artera" (ib., 1. 33). There are a few instances of slavegirls: "la linda esclava" (Pr. 130, 1. 61); "una esclavina trae rota, que no valia un real, y debajo traia otra, bien valia una ciudad" (Pr. 195, D. 191, 1. 5—8); "una esclavina que no valia un real; ya le desnudaba otra que valia una ciudad" (ib., 1. 133—136).
Criado, servant, is used in the sense of "retainer": "como bueno y fiel criado" (Pr. 14, 1. 84); "mi antiguo y leal criado" (D. 1186, 1. 104); "mi fiel y leal criado" (D. 1193, 1. 60); "mi buen criado" (D. 779, 1. 46).
The vassal, vasallo, receives similar epithets: "buenos vasallos' (D. 649, 1. 18); "el buen vasallo" (D. 792, 1. 87); "como leal vasallo (D. 810, 1. 40); "bueno y leal vasallo" (D. 885, 1. 22); "su vasallo honrado" (D. 890, 1. 52); "su amigo y fiel vasallo" (D. 992, 1. 40); "mas fiel y humilde vasallo" (D. 1013, 1. 19); "como fiel vasallo (D. 1071, 1. 22); el fiel vasallo (D. 1226, 1. 11); "como leales vasallos" (D. 1235, 1. 122); "los tres crueles vasallos" (D. 1237, 1. 15); "tu vasallo natural" (Pr. 166, D. 356, 1. 94, 128); "buen vasallo real" (Pr. 187, D. 366, 1. 200)); "vasallos traidores" (D. 592, 1. 32).
Fewer actual professions are mentioned in Spanish ballads than in English and Scottish ones; perhaps they were not considered worthy of mention. The figure of the false nurse, so familiar in the latter, occurs but once in a Spanish ballad: "las comadronas son falsas" (Pr. 130, 1. 37). When archers are mentioned, they come from England: "muchos ingleses flecheros de Inglaterra saldran" (D. 1150, 1. 197). Some minstrels are referred to as "graciosos juglares" (D. 986, 1. 11). Soldiers receive more attention: „Valeroso soldada" (Pr. 93. D. 1121, 1. 48); "valiente soldado" (Pr. 94, D. 1129,1.46); "por ser soldado y valiente" (D. 1159,1. 49); "como valiente soldado" (D. 1163, 1. 8); "soldados de valor" (D. 1165, 1.7); "valerosos soldados" (D. 1169, 1. 47); "muy buenos soldados (D, 1172, 1. 20); "valerosos soldados" (D. 1178, 1. 16). The word capitan, used in the sense of leader, occurs frequently: "capitan generale" (Pr. 135, D. 327, 1. 6); "capitan valeroso" (D. 1220,



1. 23); "su capitan honrado" (Pr. 6, D. 600, 1. 16); "fuerte capitan" (Pr. 81, D. 1046, 1. 6); "tan buen capitan" (Pr. 80, 1. 34); "con valientes capitanes" (Pr. 95, 1. 3; Pr. 95a, D. 1088, 1. 5); 'ese gran capitan" (Pr. 95, 1. 115); "capitan muy esforzado" (D. 1140, 1. 14); "valiente capitan" (D. 1159, 1. 23); "capitan senalado" (ib., 1. 46); "capitan honrado" (D. 1172, 1. 34); "capitanes muy famosos" (D. 1188, 1. 11).
The term "little page" is expressed in one word: pajecito. Instances of the use of epithets are: "un paje mio, de los mios mas preciado" (Pr. 82, D. 1047, 1. 34); "el mi paje mas querido" (Pr. 161a, D. 321, 1. 2); "el mi buen paje querido" (ib., 1. 42).
5. Emotions. The emotions play a considerable part in Spanish ballads. Loud cries are uttered in battle: "muy grandes alaridos" (D. 607, 1. 109); "grandes alaridos" (Pr. 25, 1. 10); "gran alarido (Pr. 173, D. 377, 1. 3). There is a good deal of "love interest": "Tan grande amor" (D. 623, 1. 8); "amor ciega y presa" (D. 715, 1. 7); "en dulce amor" (D. 722, 1. 114); "tristes amores" (D. 1032, 1. 5); "grande amor" (D. 1094, 1. 26); "de puro amor abrasado" (D. 1096, 1. 1); "mi querido, mi amor grande" (Pr. 121, D. 7, 1. 50); "mis amores verdaderos" (ib., 1. 63); "el amor que le tiene grande" (Pr. 1164, D. 354, 1. 844). Deeds were performed in animated fashion: "con animo muy osado" (Pr. 1, 1. 77); "con animo esforzado" (D. 954, 1. 86); "los animos inquietos" (D. 986, 1. 4); "animo muy contrito" (D. 1036, 1. 84); animo bravo y fiero" (D. 1042,1. 31); "animo indignado" (D. 1076, 1. 40); "grande animo" (D. 1188, 1. 134); "animo valeroso" (D. 1208, 1. 71); "animo fuerte" (D. 1235, 1. 73); animo tan airado (ib., 1. 82); !'el animo noble" (D. 266, 1. 60). Grief was violent: "con gran congoja" (D. 900, 1. 45); "en grave dolor" (Pr. 4, D. 594, 1. 35); "oh dolor sobremanera" (ib., 1. 45); "el dolor era crecido" (Pr. 22, D. 678, 1. 7); "el gran dolor" (Pr. 28, D. 726, 1. 39); "con muy gran dolor" (Pr. 60, 1. 49); "con sangre y dolor immenso" (D. 1035, 1. 205); "con gran dolor" (D. 1015, 1. 12); "muy gran dolor" (D. 1077, 1. 30); "muy grande dolor" (D. 1196, 1. 80); "tan grave dolor" (D. 1201, 1. 83); "por mayor dolor" (D. 1449, 1. 2); dolor demasiado (D. 1452, 1. 18); con gran dolor (Pr. 164, D. 354,



1. 226; Pr. 165, D. 355, 1. 107); "mi dolor que es muy sobrado" {ib., 1. 185); "gran dano" (Pr. 15, D. 700, 1. 29); "muy gran dano" (D. 1159, 1. 16); "dano muy sobrado" (D. 1178, 1. 30); "total miseria y dano" (D. 1235, 1. 64); "gran dano" (Pr. 165, D. 355, 1. 575); "gran enojo" (D. 626, 1. 49; Pr. 10, D. 634, 1. 61; D. 635, 1. 103; D. 658, 1. 15; Pr. 14, 1. 63; D. 713, 1. 28; D. 764, 1. 16; Pr. 44, D. 777, 1. 12; D. 862, 1. 162; Pr. 82a, D. 1048, 1. 34; Pr. 85b, D. 1065, 1. 10; Pr. 107a, D. 1240, 1. 5; Pr. 139, D. 329, 1. 22; Pr. 154a, D. 185, 1. 61; Pr. 171, D. 374, 1. 103; Pr. 186, D. 402, i. 39; Pr. 187, D. 366, 1. 31; D. 367, 1. 159; D. 368, 1. 139); "justo enojo" (D. 636, 1. 103); "con enojo encendido" (Pr. 47b, D. 790, 1. 6); "con crecido enojo" (D. 721, 1. 27); "muy grande enojo" (Pr. 107, 1. 5, 19); "gran pesar" (Pr. 173, D. 377, 1. 28; Pr. 175, D. 382, 1. 92, 238, etc.; D. 618, 1. 13; D. 630, 1. 41; Pr. 10, D. 634, 1. 60; D. 1130, 1. 15; Pr. 164, D. 354, 1. 332; Pr. 165, D. 355, 1. 196); "doleroso pesar" (Pr. 175, D. 382, 1. 250); "muy gran pesar" (D. 607, 1. 69; D. 832, 1. 10); "de gran pesar movido" (Pr. 148, D. 352, 1. 22); "movido de gran pesar" (Pr. 164, D. 354, 1. 230, 554); "tan gran pesar" (ib., 1. 1048); "sobresalto de pesar" (Pr. 165, D. 355, 1. 160); "con gran angustia y pesar" (Pr. 187, D. 366, 1. 128); "con mucho pesar y tristeza" (ib., 1. 139); "con gran tristeza" (Pr. 9, D. 626, 1. 65).
Rage and fury are often evoked: "con gran ira" (Pr. 9, D. 626, 1. 56); de ire rabiosa" (D. 651, 1. 44); "con muy rabiosa ira" (D. 805, 1. 55); "con grande ira" (Pr. 184, D. 400, 1. 37); "sana muy crecida" (D. 744, 1. 43); "grande sana" (D. 823, 1. 1); "con gran sana" (D. 955, 1. 47, 83); "la sana real" (D. 962, 1. 22); "la encendida y fiera sana" (D. 1097, 1. 35); "en rencorosa sana" (D. 1125, 1. 54); crecida sana" (D. 1130, 1. 36); "crecida y grande sana" (Pr. 95, 1. 70); "gran sana y mortal ira" (D. 1188, 1. 198); 'gran sana" (D. 1216, 1. 35, 36); "con mucha sana" (Pr. 106, D. 1244, 1. 35); "con gran sana" (Pr. 145, 1. 7); "en gran sana"; "muy gran sana (Pr. 164, D. 354, 1. 229, 1095).
Complaints, tears, and sighs echo through the pages of the romancero: "con gran llanto" (D. 389, 1. 20); "grande llanto" (Pr. 3, 1. 66); "muy grande llanto" (Pr. 9, D. 626, 1. 42); "con llanto doloroso" (D. 657, 1. 9); "cruel llanto" (Pr. 14, 1. 60); "el



llanto... era grande y dolorido (D. 683, 1. 36); con encendido llanto" (D. 722, 1. 43); "un gran llanto" (Pr. 50a, 1. 18); "gran llanto" (D, 928,1. 3); 'triste llanto" (D. 1011,1. 25); "grande llanto" (D. 1059, 1. 4; Pr. 162, D. 1228, 1. 10; D. 1251, 1252, 1. 4); "con gran llanto y gemido" (Pr. 91, D. 1069, 1. 40); "con gran llanto" (D. 1083, 1. 42); "muy grandes llantos" (D. 1196, 1. 224; Pr. 164, D. 354, 1. 2092); "el penoso y triste llanto" (D. 1208, 1. 1); muy tristes llantos" (Pr. 107a, D. 1240, 1. 66); "grande llanto" (Pr. 130, 1. 72); "su triste llanto" (D. 261, 1. 24); "un triste llanto" (D. 267, 1. 11); "llantos muy grandes" (Pr. 164, D. 354, 1. 2092); "tan tristes llantos" (ib., 1. 3096); "muy grande llanto (Pr. 171, D. 374, 1. 88); "tristes llantos" (Pr. 173, D. 377, 1. 172). Llorando de los sus ojos" (Pr. 5, D. 599, 1. 41); D. 618, 1. 23; D. 965, 1. 51, Pr. 164, D. 354, 1. 375); "muy fuertamente llorando" (Pr. 6, D. 600, 1. 60; Pr. 49, D. 795, 1. 46); "de sus ojos llorando" (Pr. 11, D. 637,1. 6); "casi de placer llorando" (D. 643, 1. 76); llorando agramente" (Pr. 24, 1. 25); llorando de los sus ojos con gran angustia y pesar (Pr. 25, 1. 80, 81); fuentes, por ti, de llorar (D. 116, 1. 48); "continuo llorar" (Pr. 164, D. 354, 1. 225); "lagrimas de sus ojos" (Pr. 107a, D. 1240, 1. 67); "lagrimas de los sus ojos" (Pr. 121, D. 7, 1. 23; Pr. 124, D. 8, 1. 19); "con lagrimas vivas" (D. 263, 1. 36); 'de lagrimas de sus ojos toda la mesa cubria" (Pr. 163, D. 365, 1. 271, 272); "lagrimas de roja sangre" (D. 393, 1. 3); "lagrimas de mis ojos" (D. 292, 1. 29); 'en mil lagrimas banando" (D. 624, 1. 52); las lagrimas de sus ojos muchas van por sus mejillos (D. 627, 1. 15, 16); muchas lagrimas llorando (D. 635, 1. 58); "lagrimas de cristal claro" (D. 645, 1. 58); "las lagrimas hasta el centro" (D. 663, 1. 6); lagrimas tristes (D. 730, 1. 3); "lagrimas amorosas" (D. 746. 1. 15); banada en lagrimas tiernas" (D. 757, 1. 7); "muchas lagrimas vertia" (D. 770, 1. 8); "tristes lagrimas vierte" (D. 999, 1. 18. 34); con tristes lagrimas riega (D- 1004, 1. 4); lagrimas tintas en sangre (D1147, 1. 5); "lagrimas de sus ojos" (D. 1205, 1. 100); "lagrimas tiernas" (D. 1206, 1. 68; D. 1207, 1. 20; D. 1208, 1. 52). "Muy grandes suspiros dando" (D. 618, 1. 24); ardientes suspiros (D. 662, 1. 24); "sospirando con gran pena" (D. 836, 1. 11); "ardientes suspiros" (D. 1034, 1. 152); suspiros de gran cuidado



(D. 1037, 1. 2); "sospiros del alma, tan fervorosos y ardientes que el campo atemorizaba (D. 1092, 1. 28—30); "un gran suspiro" (D. 1094, 1. 653; D. 1190, 1. 39; Pr. 165, D. 355, 1. 736); "a grandes suspiros" (Pr. 164, D. 354, 1. 851); "sospiros muy dolorosos" (Pr. 165, D. 355, 1. 287); 'un suspiro muy fuerte" (D. 368, 1. 43, 387); 'muy grandes suspiros" (Pr. 190, D. 362, 1. 5); "y con espesos gemidos y suspiros que iba dando" (Pr. 189, D. 371, 1. 249, 250).
Emotions were also expressed by the tone of the voice, while the plural, voces, is used in the sense of shouts or cries: "con alta y soberbia voz" (Pr. 29, D. 371, 1. 33); "una voz alterada" (ib., 1. 73); "con la voz muy alterada" (D. 787, 1. 11); "con la voz ronca, turbada" (D. 805, 1. 10); "con voz muy alterada" (D. 814, 1. 63); "con voz alterada" (Pr. 52, D. 812, 1. 37); "alterada voz" (D. 822, 1. 18); "con voz flaca, temblanda" (Pr. 68a, D. 972, 1. 43); "a voz alta" (Pr. 82a, D. 1048, 1. 74; Pr. 164, D. 354, 1. 4000); "con voz dolorida" (D. 1090, 1. 74); "con una voz graciosa" (D. 1094, 1. 135); "voz dulce y suave" (ib., 1. 605); "voz alta y muy modesta" (Pr. 87, D. 1095, 1. 53); "voz débil, muy distinta" (D. 1104, 1. 2); "con voz grave" (D. 1125, 1. 61; D. 1144, 1. 31); "con una voz melindrosa" (Pr. 134, D. 1131, 1. 27); "con voz alta" (D. 1144, 1. 85); "la timida voz asida" (D. 1145, 1. 94); "en voz alta" (D. 1188, 1. 101); "en alta voz" (D. 1208, 1. 62); "una voz dolorosa" (Pr. 123, D. 10, 1. 9); "voz amorosa" (Pr. 145, 1. 9); "voz alta y amorosa" (Pr. 160, D. 1889, 1. 67); "voz amorosa" (Pr. 164, D. 354, 1. 77, 913); "con una voz demudada" (ib., 1. 451); "con una voz muy humilde" (ib., 1. 559, 825); "con voz humilde" (ib., 1. 1013); "con voz muy alta" (ib. 1. 3075); "la voz muy alterada" (Pr. 165, D. 355, 1. 295); "una gran voz" (ib., 1. 516); "con una voz amorosa" (Pr. 173, D. 377, 1. 147); "con voz triste y muy llorosa" (ib., 1. 281); "una voz delicada" (ib., 1. 65); "con una voz triste y llorosa" (ib., 1. 487); "con voz alta y crecida" (ib., 1. 567); la voz fatigada" (D. 392, 1. 18); "la voz turbada" (ib., 1. 50); con voz enojada (Pr. 187, D. 366, 1. 23); 'coj una voz delicada" (D. 368, 1. 349); "voz ronca y muy planida" (ib., 1. 373); "voz triste y dolorosa" (ib., 1. 391); "esta triste voz" (Pr. 292, 1. 34). ,,Voces de alegria (D. 700, 1. 46); "muy grandes las voces"



(Pr. 21, D. 676, 1. 47); "a grandes voces" (Pr. 23, D. 680, 1. 66; D. 849, 1. 23; D. 927, 1. 144; Pr. 79, D. 1073, 1. 7; Pr. 89, 1. 111, 1. 19; D. 1148, 1. 132; Pr. 107, 1. 28; Pr. 128, D. 5, 1. 23; Pr. 177, 1. 33; Pr. 177a, 1. 276; Pr. 83, 1. 9; D. 370, 1. 275); "con voces tiernas" (D. 1004, 1. 10); "en altas voces" (D. 1005, 1. 4; Pr. 79, D. 1073, 1. 17; D. 1225, 1. 77); "las voces eran tan grandes que al cielo quieran llegar" (Pr. 109, 1. 111, 112); "grandes voces" (Pr. 147, D. 351, 1. 11); "con altas voces" (Pr. 164, D. 354, 1. 337); "las voces que dan grandes" (ib., 1. 762); voces dolorosas (Pr. 165, D. 355, 1. 319); "las voces que iban dando al cielo quieran llegar" (Pr. 173, D. 377, 1. 197, 198); "las grandes voces que daban al caballo hacen saltar" (ib., 1. 401, 402); "altas voces" (D. 368, 1. 220); "a muy grandes voces" (Pr. 192, 1. 34).
With the emotions I will also class the terms for justice, treachery and traitors, as well as vengeance and avengers: "justicia mayor (Pr. 150, D. 294, 1. 24); "la alta justicia" (Pr. 163, D. 365, 1. 392); "la justicia divina" (ib., 1. 426); "la justicia sera igual, asi al pobre como al rico, asi al chico como al grande, y tambien al extranjero, como al propio natural" (Pr. 166, D. 356, 1. 198—202). Un perverso traidor" (Pr. 4, D. 594, 1. 23); "un traidor malvado" (Pr. 46, D. 779, 1. 32); "aquel traidor afamado" (Pr. 53, D. 785, 1. 2); "aquel traidor singular" (D. 1147, 1. 12); malo, falso, mal traidor" (Pr. 116, D. 144, 1. 24); "traidor de corazon" (Pr. 120, D. 330, 1. 2); "mala traidora" (Pr. 142, D. 1459, 1. 31); traidor malvado" (Pr. 177a, D. 370, 1. 198); "traidor desleal" (Pr. 188, D. 369, 1. 158); "muy gran traicion" (D. 609, 1. 11); "gran traicion" (D. 780, 1. 9); "traicion armada" (ib., 1. 36); "tan gran traicion" (Pr. 21, D. 676, 1. 2); "gran traicion" (D. 778, 1. 14; Pr. 57, D. 861,1. 26; D. 862, 1. 26; D. 863,1. 2); "aquesta traicion tamana" (D. 873, 1. 4); "que grande traicion" (D. 1205, 1. 10); alguna iraicion grande (Pr. 178, 1. 336). La justa venganza (D. 592, 1. 25); "venganza brava" (D. 1130, 1. 30); "el valiente vengador" ^D. 694, 1. 2); "vengador noble y valiente (D. 792, 1. 3).
6. Actions. The action of fighting recurs with frequency, and the word batalla has various epithets attached to it: batalla infame (D. 588, 1. 31); "la temerosa batalla" (D. 596, 1. 4); "la batalla fué muy cruda, sangrienta de cabo a cabo (D. 628, 1. 13, 14),



cruda batalla (Pr. 12, D. 639, 1. 50); "muy renida batalla" (Pr. 14,1. 147); "muy sangriente batalla" (D. 707,1. 1); "muy cruda es la batalla (Pr. 22, D. 678, 1. 75); "batalla muy sangrienta" (D. 764, 1. 7); "dudosa batalla" (D. 780, 1. 42); "las batallas crudas" (D. 831, 1. 21); "en batalla temerosa" (D. 856, 1. 1); "la sangrienta batalla (D. 916, 1. 1; D. 1246, 1. 1); "muy gran batalla" (D .945, 1. 99; Pr. 96a, D. 1086, 1. 38); "muy cruel batalla" (D. 964, 1. 56); "la sangrienta batalla" (D. 1070, 1. 8; D. 1130, 1. 32);
gran batalla muy cruel y ensangrentada" (Pr. 95a, D. 1088,
1. 38, 42); "que hermosa batalla" (D. 1092, 1. 91); "cruda batalla" (D. 1098, 1. 62); "batalla dura y fuerte" (D. 1105, 1. 6); "cruel batalla" (Pr. 95, 1. 42); "la batalla aplazada" (D. 1139, 1. 243); "una batalla muy sangrienta y decisiva" (D. 1169, 1. 71, 72); "batalla fiera" (D. 1170, 1. 32); "la batalla va sangrienta" (ib., 1. 54); "batalla muy cruel y muy sangriente" (ib., 1. 18); "fué la batalla sangrienta (D. 1178, 1. 25; D. 1179, 1. 74); "batallas muy crueles" (Pr. 165, D. 355, 1. 569); "cruel batalla" (Pr. 177, 1. 121); "mas sangrienta la batalla" (D. 386, 1. 2); "la infelice batalla" (D. 392, 1. 40); "una batalla muy cruel en la verdad" (Pr. 187, D. 366, 1. 177, 178). Fighting was fierce: "brava lid" (D. 629, 1. 10); lid muy herida" (D. 697, 1. 48); "muy gran lid" (D. 765, 1. 4); "lid ferida" (D. 947, 1. 20).
The taking of oaths plays a considerable part: "un solemne juro (D. 810, 1. 2); "las juras eran tan fuertes que a todos ponen espanto (Pr. 52, D. 812, 1. 5, 6); "con juramento sobre un libro misale (Pr. 164, D. 354, 1. 383, 384); "con sacramente leale" (ib., 1. 590); juramento le ha hecho sobre un libro misale" (ib., 1. 925, 926); "juro sobre Sant Dionis" (Pr. 189, D. 371, 1. 137); "yo juro por mi corona, por un corona real" (Pr. 190, 1. 357, 358; D. 362, 1. 377, 378).
Counsel, mostly elvi, occurs in: "este negra conseja" (Pr. 4, D. 594, 1. 43); mal consejo (Pr. 73, 73a, D. 1054, 1. 2); "consejada negra (Pr. 77, D. 1075, 1. 4); "muy bien consejo" (Pr. 193, D. 373, 1. 97).
The writing of letters is frequent: "no eraii cartas de placer, ni eran cartas de alegria, sino de tristeza y lloro" (D. 591, 1. 5—8); con cartas en la su mano en que socorro pedia. Escritas iban con



sangre, mas no por falta de tinta (Pr. 74, D. 1043, 1. 3 7), en una carta brunida" (D. 1116, 1. 23); "oh letras de mi consuelo" (D. 1120,1. 115); "una carta sellada" (D. 1192, 1. 14); cartas .... escritas con sangre" (Pr. 184, D. 400, 1. 56).
There are a few notable weddings in Spanish balladry: aquestas bodas amargas" (D. 873, 1. 12); "funestas bodas y exequias" (D. 1237, 1. 45); "bodas sumptuosas" (Pr. 160, D. 1889, 1. 71); ricas bodas" (Pr. 171, D. 374, 1. 17; Pr. 192, 1. 291).
There remains the final action, death: "la cruda muerte (D. 632, 1. 29); "la muerte cruda" (D. 643, 1. 23); "mas cruda muerte" (Pr 15 D 700 1. 61); "su malograda muerte" (D. 783, 1. 17); "con cruda muerte" (Pr. 53, D. 785, 1. 3); "el alevosa muerte" (Pr. 47b, D. 790, 1. 7); "su muerte honrosa" (D. 792,1. 79); belhda muerte" (D. 809, 1. 2); "aquella tan cruda muerte" (D. 814, 1. 11); -la su triste muerte" (Pr. 68a, D. 972, 1. 28); "muerte infame" <D. 979, 1. 57): "muerte tan inorme" (D. 995, 1. 10); oh muerte sabrosa y grata" (D. 1104, 1. 25); "tu muerte temprana" (Pr. 95, 1. 108); "esta muerte dolorosa" (D. 1196, 1. 31); esta muerte cruel" (D. 1204, 1. 9); "la precisa muerte" (D. 1226, 1. 39); la muerte quejosa" (Pr. 100, 1. 51); "lastimosa muerte" (D. 1237. 1. 33); "muy cruel muerte" (D. 1241, 1. 91); mi muerte inocente (Pr. 165 D. 355, 1. 253); "mi desastrada muerte' (ib., 1. 379); "el morir es una cosa que a todos es natural (Pr. 166, D. 356, 1 173 174); "la su tan temprana muerte" (D. 389, 1. 21); muerte tan honrada" (Pr. 190, 1. 261, 267; D. 362, 1. 281, 287); "no me pese de mi muerte, porque es cosa natural" (Pr. 191, D. 365, 1. 5 , 60); "No doy nada por mi muerte, pues es cosa natural (ib.,
1. 113, 114).
7. Appearance. The face and its expressions are frequently mentioned: "su lindo rostro" (Pr. 3, 1. 5); su rostro ahndado^ (ib.. 1. 6); "el rostro blanco" (D. 588. 1. 3); "el venerable rostro (D 592, 1. 9); "con airado rostro" (D. 635, 1. 3); el rostro apasionado" (ib., 1. 60); "con fiero semblante y rostro" (D. 647, 1. 46); "con rostro muy sosegado" (Pr. 37, D. 774, 1. 32); con el rostro entristecido" (D. 786, 1. 1); "el rostro triste turbado" (D. 802, 1. 4); "el rostro triste y turbado" (D. 821, 1. 6); con rosto airado" (D. 838, 1. 5); "el rostro resplandiciente" (D. 892. 1. 23);



"el turbado rostro" (D. 1036, 1. 9); "el rostro demudada, de color muy fria y blanca" (D. 1080, Pr. 92, 1. 11, 12); "con rostro alegre" (D. 1094, 1. 575); "con rostro soberbio, airado" (D. 1120, 1. 73); "con alegre rostro y, risa" (D. 1139, 1. 266); "palido y mudado el rostro" (D. 1202, 1. 3); "mi triste rostro" (D. 1205, 1. 101); "con rostro disimulado" (D. 1241, 1. 84); "su rostro todo mojado de lagrimas de sus ojos" (Pr. 177, 1. 175, 176); "su rostro como cristal" (Pr. 178, 1. 4); "con rostro sereno" (D. 392, 1. 17); "con rostro mustio y triste" (ib., 1. 41).
Hair is mentioned fairly often, the golden colour being the favourite, but veneration being shewn toward white hair, "canas": 'a quien el rubio cabello bordaba de oro los hombros" (D. 617, 1. 10, 11); "rubios cabellos" (Pr. 27, 1. 20); "los cabellos que al oro disminuyen el color" (D. 759, 1. 29, 30); "sus cabellos son mas que oro, que el oro dellos naciera" (D. 114, 1. 27, 28); "peinandose los cabellos, como oro de Alejandria" (D. 1094, 1. 429, 430); "mesan sus cabellos negros" (Pr. 91, 1. 45); "rubio el cabello y muy largo" (D. 1202, 1. 2); "sus lindos cabellos" (Pr. 112, D. 324, 1. 25); "los cabellos de oro puro" (Pr. 122, D. 9, 1. 7); "su rubio cabello rompe" (D. 1370, 1. 70); "cabellos de su cabeza sueltos le quiere lleva, que parecen oro fino" (Pr. 178, 1. 283—285); "el cabello de oro fino" (D. 393, 1. 5); "esparcidas las hebras" (D. 585, 1. 6); "hebras de plata lisa" (D. 592, 1. 7); "hebras de oro fino" (D. 805, 1. 43); "tus crespas hebras doradas" (D. 267, 1. 49); 'el oro de sus madejas" (D. 585, 1. 4); "su crespa madeja" (D. 1144, 1. 1); "mis tristes canas" (D. 625, 1. 12); "honradas canas" (D. 681, 1. 14); "sus blancas canas" (D. 692, 1. 39); "a sus venerables canas" (D. 792, 1. 26); "tus blancas canas" (D. 864, 1. 35); "las canas honradas" (D. 889, 1. 5); "las blancas trenzas" (D. 1208, 1. 96); "cabellos muy canos" (Pr. 165, D. 355, 1. 393).
Beards are also in evidence: "el de la barba vellida" (Pr. 84, D. 1061, 1. 2); "el de la vellida barba" (D. 1062, Pr. 84a, 1. 2); "de barba cruda y cana" (Pr. 85a, D. 1064, 1. 42); "su barba blanca" (D. 1082, 1. 17); "cabello y barba vellida" (D. 1195, 1. 13); "la barba hasta la cintura" (D. 1202, 1. 1); "las barbas y los cabellos nunca los quisa afeitare, tiene los fasta la cinta, fasta la



cinta y aun mas" (Pr. 164. D. 354, 1. 311—314); "barbas blancas"
(Pr. 178, 1. 369).
Eyes are made much of: ' esos bellissimos ojos (D. 587, 1. 35), "ojos vueltos en sangre" (Pr. 6, D. 600, 1. 51); los ojos llorosos (Pr. 7, D. 606, 1. 59); "sus dos ojos hechos fuentes" (D. 805, 1. 41); "hechos dos Etnas los ojos" (D. 822, 1. 9); sus ojos fuentes se habian tornado" (D. 862, 1. 146); "los bellos ojos" (D. 976, 1. 94); "los ojos enternecidos" (D. 986, 1. 3); llorando con ojos tiernos" (D. 1011, 1. 24); "los ojos encarnizados" (D. 1138, 1. 21); "con unos airados ojos" (D. 1186, 1. 29); "vueltos sus ojos dos rios" (D. 1204, 1. 15); "sus ojos tornados fuentes" (Pr. 109, 1. 43); "sus ojos tan cortés" (Pr. 119, D. 296,1. 16); "sus ojos envendados" (Pr. 122, D. 9, 1. 3); "tus negros ojos de estima" (D. 267, 1. 50); "sus ojuelos garzos" (Pr. 143, 1. 13); los ojos de un esparver (Pr. 145, 1. 34); "los ojos llorosos" (Pr. 163, D. 365, 1. 239); sus ojos vueltos agua" (D. 379, 1. 6); "sus delicados ojos" (D. 368, 1. 357).
Hands receive a charming variety of epithets; su odifero mano (Pr. 3a, D. 589, 1. 24); "sus lindas y blancas manos" (Pr. 3, 1. 7); "con rigurosa mano" (D. 592, 1. 7); las manos ho como nieve (D. 713, 1. 11): "las manos hermosas" (ib., 1. 81); "las bellas manos" (D. 722, 1. 89); "sus manos bellas" (D. 867, 1. 34); "sus airadas manos" (D. 1082, 1. 78); "sus blancas manos" (D. 1074, I. 623); "mano franca y benigna" (D. 1104, 1. 24); "sus blancas manos" (Pr. 95, 1. 95); "aquella hermosa mano" (D. 1134, 1. 6); "de grandeza y mana franca" (D. 1194, 1. 14); "torciendo las blancas manos" (D. 1198, 1. 152); "sus delicadas manos" (D. 1202, 1. 6); "con mano abundosa y franca" (D. 1231, 1. 8); "la mano que nieve fué" (D. 1238, 1. 12); "tan abierta y largo mano" (D. 1246. 1. 36); "tus bellas manos" (Pr. 123, D. 10, 1. 28); "por mano real" (D. 1369, 1. 28); "lindas manos" (Pr. Bóa, D. 299, 1. 17); "sus reales manos" (Pr. 163, D. 365, 1. 131).
An expression to denote great fatigue, occuring also in Danish ballads, is the bleeding of nails: "sus encarnizadas unas" (D. 646, 1. 48); "las unas corriendo sangre" (Pr. 121, D. 7, 1. 14; Pr. 124, D. 8, 1. 8; Pr. 173, D. 377, 1. 66; Pr. 176, D. 383, 1. 16; Pr. 195, D. 291, 1. 4).



The body is variously described: "aqueste cuerpo mezquino" (Pr. 5, D. 599, 1. 59); "de hermoso cuerpo y cara" (D. 623, 1. 15); "el cuerpo amado y querido" (D. 632, 1. 16); "muy crecido es el cuerpo" (D. 837, 1. 11); "el cuerpo triste" (D. 1017, 1. 41); "un cuerpo de valia" (D. 1196, 1. 60); "aqueste cuerpo llagado" (ib., 1. 157); "el cuerpo flaco" (D. 1202, 1. 4); "su lindo cuerpo" (D. 1251, 1. 62); "cuerpo garrido" (Pr. 161, D. 320, 1. 6); "hermoso cuerpo" (Pr. 190, D. 362, 1. 55).
Arms and armour occupy an important place; they are made of strong, tempered steel: „acero bien templado" (D. 954, 1. 66); acero muy bien templado" (Pr. 93, D. 1121, 1. 26); "fuerte y duro acero" (D. 399, 1. 25).
"Armas que eran de gran pedreria" (Pr. 5, D. 599, 1. 20); "muy buenas armas" (D. 623, 1. 31); "de negras armas vestido" (D. 632, 1. 18); "fuertes armas" (Pr. 41, 1. 5); "las armas llevan blancas" (Pr. 42, 1. 3); "armas lucidas" (D. 792, 1. 55); "las nuevas y frescas armas" (D. 793, 1. 14); "tristes armas de luto" (D. 802, 1. 29); "muy ricas armas" (Pr. 64, D. 960, 1. 53); "las armas van relumbrado" (Pr. 92a, D. 1081, 1. 16); "de finas armas armado" (D. 1109, 1. 8); "unas armas lleva negras" (D. 1128, 1. 5; D. 1130, 1. 43); "de ricas y fuertes armas" (Pr. 95, 1. 6); "con armas rojas" (D. 1139, 1. 82); "armado de todas armas" (D. 1195, 1. 15; Pr. 162, D. 1228, 1. 127; Pr. 128, D. 5, 1. 11); "las lucidas armas" (D. 1245, 1. 30); "buenas armas" (Pr. 164, D. 354, 1. 159); "armas blancas" (ib., 1. 289; Pr. 173, D. 377, 1. 275); "muy lucidos armas" (Pr. 164, D. 354, 1. 942); "armado de todas armas" (Pr. 165, D. 355, 1. 165; Pr. 166, D. 356, 1. 373; Pr. 177, 1. 53; D. 370, 1. 81 ); "armas blancas" (Pr. 185, 1. 23, 33; Pr. 185a, D. 395, 1. 51); "blancas armas" (ib., 1. 61).
The shining shield is called "la adarga blanca" (D. 1046, 1. 22, 55; D. 1049, 1. 45). Silver trumpets are mentioned: "anafiles de plata" (Pr. 85, D. 1063, 1. 12; Pr. 85a, D. 1064, 1. 19). The sword is important: "su muy tajante espada" (D. 721, 1. 40); "valiente espada" (D. 728, 1. 34); "ricas espadas" (Pr. 42a, D. 775, 1. 5); "su espada que era buena y muy preciada" (Pr. 56, D. 1085, 1. 4); 'de bien conocida espada" (D. 1066, 1. 30); "la dura espada" (Pr. 96b, D. 1085, 1. 4); "real espada" (D. 259, 1. 55); "la fiera



espada" (Pr. 161a, D. 321, 1. 73): "espada nunca vencida" (Pr. 181, D. 387, 1. 61); "tu buena espada" (Pr. 189, D. 371, 1. 267); "su rica espada" (ib., 1. 293). Gold or gilt spurs were worn: "espuela de oro" (D. 733, 1. 32; Pr. 55, D. 858, 1. 6): "espuelas de oro" (D. 1090, 1. 10); "rica espuela dorada" (D. 1092, 1. 42); "todos de espuela dorada" (D. 1149, 1. 4). The lance was a formidable arm:: "gruesa lanza" (Pr. 12, D. 639, 1. 5; D. 1092, 1. 34; D. 1137, 1. 30; D. 1138, 1. 18; D. 787, 1. 7; D. 787, 1. 51; Pr. 14, 1. 27); "una buena lanza" (Pr. 12, D. 639, 1. 14); Pr. 31, D. 750, 1. 26, 29); "buenas lanzas" (D. 648, 1. 16); "una lanza lisa" (D. 710, 1. 74); "muchas lanzas aceradas" (Pr. 23, D. 680, 1. 10); "muy gruesa lanza" (Pr. 32, D. 752, 1. 6); la lanza lleva terciada" (Pr. 48, 1. 5); "con fuerte lanza" (D. 856, 1. 12); una rica lanza" (D. 943, 1. 28); "muy aventajada lanza" (D. 976, 1. 10); "lanza con dos fierros ' (Pr. 82a, D. 1048, 1. 61).
Trumpets are not always described as being made of silver, but sometimes mentioned for their exciting sound in battle: "la fiera trompeta" (D. 603, 1. 5); "con victoriosa trompa" (D. 652, 1. 71); "la ronca trompeta" (D. 1127, 1. 7); la bélica trompeta, que los animos incita" (D. 1139, 1. 89, 90); "la sonora trompeta" (D. 1199. J. 6).
Gilt daggers were in use: "punal dorado (Pr. 65, 1. 18); punales dorado" (Pr. 82a, D. 1048, 1. 28); "punal sobredorado" (D. 1198, 1. 36).
Rich beits were worn: "una cinta muy rica, de oro bien labrada, con perlas, piedras preciosas, de valor, muy estimado (D 980,
1_ 21 24); "tu rica cinta preciosa es el caudaloso rio (D. 1034,
1. 191, 192).
The ring is not a regular ballad motif; but the imperial ring of Charlemagne is mentioned: "un anillo de oro, con el sello imperiale" (Pr. 166, D. 356, 1. 305, 306).
Jewels and treasures occur: "jovas son de gran valor (Pr. 7, D. 606, 1. 45); "ricas joyas" (D. 1098, 1. 31; Pr. 165, D. 355, 1. 804); "gran tesoro" (Pr. 2, D. 606, 1. 3); sus sobrados tesoros
(D. 1229, 1. 5).
The sign of the cross was often painted on shields or embroidered on garments: "una cruz de oro" (D. 614, 1. 15); una muy hermosa



cruz" (ib., 1. 40); "una cruz colorada" (Pr. 88a, D. 1102, 1. 6; Pr. 88b, D. 1103, 1. 8); "una cruz roja" (D. 1109, 1. 37); "una cruz santa" (D. 1205, 1. 37); "la cruz bermeja" (D. 1208, 1. 305, 306).
Gold, silver, and precious stones are mentioned: "el fino oro" (Pr. 4, D. 594, 1. 19); "el oro fino" (Pr. 79, D. 1073, 1. 16); "oro de Alejandria" (D. 1094, 1. 130, 430); "de fino oro de Florencia. labrados a la toscana" (D. 1194, 1. 53, 54); "oro fino ' (Pr. 161a, D. 321, 1. 116); "oro tirado" (D. 363, 1. 67); "plata fina" (D. 1090. 1. 16; D. 1094, 1. 102; D. 1137, 1. 31); "muchas piedras preciosas" (Pr. 190, D. 362, 1. 25; D. 614, 1. 11); "piedras ricas" (D. 1125, 1. 32); "finas piedras" (D. 1193, 1. 52); "piedra muy bien labrada" (Pr. 167, D. 357, 1. 95); "piedras preciosas" (D. 721, 1. 55); "piedra jaspa" (D. 361, 1. 31); "riquisima esmeralda" (D. 1093. 1. 62); "una piedra zafira" (Pr. 178, D. 384, 1. 8); 'un hermoso diamante, bien labrado, grueso y fino" (D. 1034, 1. 45, 46).
Helmets were richly ornamented: "un yelmo muy rico, de infinita pedreria" (D. 361, 1. 39, 40); "el rico yelmo, que como el sol relumbraba" (D. 794, 1. 21, 22); "fino yelmo acerado" (D. 1128, }. 10); "el yelmo encantado" (D. 643, 1. 20).
A cousin of the „wee pen-knife" occurs as: "un venablo, dorado era y pequena" (Pr. 44, D. 777, 1. 63). A gold comb once: "peine de oro" (Pr. 118, D. 4, 1. 3).
Clothes were fashioned from scarlet cloth, silk, brocade, sindal, and holland; the colours mentioned are generally scarlet or black: "panos de duelo" (Pr. 9, D. 626, 1. 43; Pr. 11, D. 637, 1. 5); "los blandos panos de Londres" (D. 745, 1. 23) is al delicate compliment to the English clothiers; "vestida de negros pnos" (Pr. 54, D. 816, 1. 3); 'panos buenos, panos nobles de escarlata" (D. 917, 1. 27, 28); "cubiertos de negros panos" (D. 940, 1. 14); panos negros" (D. 979, 1. 64); 'un pano de oro" (D. 1120, 1. 21); "seis panos de fina grana" (D. 1194, 1. 70); "cien panos de oro fino" (D. 1231, 1. 3); "un pano negro" (Pr. 146a, 1. 13; Pr. 164, D. 354, 1. 65): "ricos panos" (Pr. 171, D. 374, 1. 19); "panos de seda" (Pr. 191, D. 365, 1. 93); "ropa de escarlata" (D. 976, 1. 52); "de escarlata la mochila" (D. 1090, 1. 8); "marlota de seda verde, a la morisca broslada" (D. 1092, 1. 35, 36); "sedas finas y grana" (Pr. 75.



D. 1045, 1. 10); "de seda, Cambray y Holanda" (D. 1149, 1. 14); "sedas de valor crecido" (D. 1191, 1. 14); "seda como de oro" (ib., 1. 21); "seda de Granada" (D. 1194, 1. 56); "seda fina" (D. 1229,1. 44); "brocados muy preciados" (D. 1198, 1. 64); "un cendal de brocado" (D. 1193, 1. 42); 'tocas de negro cendal" (Pr. 30a, D. 734, 1. 6); "de bordadura muy rica" (D. 1132, 1. 74); a shirt of tow is mentioned in contrast to shirts of holland: "con camisones de estopa, no de holanda, ni labrados' (D. 811, 1. 25, 26; Pr. 52, D. 812, 1. 21, 22); "una gruesa camisa" (Pr. 189, D. 371, 1. 211); "holanda muy rica" (Pr. 152, D. 323, 1. 6).
Gloves could be either luxurious, or mailed gauntlets: "guantes olorosos" (Pr. 16, D. 703, 1. 57; Pr. 29, D. 731, 1. 15); "los de acero claro" (Pr. 16, D. 703, 1. 58); "guante mallado" (Pr. 29 D. 731, 1. 16); "por mallos guantes de flores" (D. 745, 1. 25); "el mi guante tan preciado" (Pr. 134, D. 1131, 1. 32); 'guantes olorosos" (D. 376, 1. 11).
Wide capes or mantles occur frequently: "un largo manto" (D. 640, 1. 22); "ricos mantones" (Pr. 16, D. 703, 1. 10); "ricos mantos" (Pr. 41, 1. 6); "ricas capas aguaderas" (Pr. 42, 1. 9); "capas traigan aguaderas, no de contray ni frisado" (D. 811, 1. 23; D. 812, Pr. 52, 1. 19, 20); "capas traigan aguaderas, a guisa de labradores" (Pr. 58, 1. 7, 8); "tres mantas franjadas de oro" (D. 1194, 1. 69); "mantellinas blancas, compuestas a la cristiana" (D. 1198, 1. 185, 186); "mantillo de un tornasol" (Pr. 143. 1. 8); "buen mantillo" (Pr. 144, 1. 26).
Shoes occur made of silk, Morocco leather, or the humble bark: "zapatos lleva de seda, de un amarillo color" (D. 741, 1. 29, 30); "abarcas traigan calzados, que no zapatos con lazo" (D. 811, 1. 21, 22); "abarcas traigan calzados, que no zapatos con lazos" (Pr. 52, D. 812, 1. 17, 18); "borcequies marraquies" (Pr. 55, D. 858, 1. 5); "abarcas traen calzados" (Pr. 64, D. 960, 1. 31); "y en lugar de los zapatos, con abarcas le calzaba" (D. 1212, 1. 57, 58); 'con abarcas calzadas" (D. 1214, 1. 43); "calzas de grana" (Pr. 149, D. 293,1. 5); "borceguies de cordoban' (ib., 1. 6; Pr. 190, D. 362,1. 20).
8. Habitations. Royal palaces are often mentioned in the Carolingian romances: "real palacio" (Pr. 177a, D. 370, 1. 342);



'muy ricos palacios" (D. 615, 1. 56); "palacio real" (Pr. 13, 1. 32; Pr. 178, 1. 16, 206, etc.); "palacios soberbios" (D. 986, 1. 56); "su real palacio" (D. 1097, 1. 16); "palacio reale (Pr. 135, D. 327, 1. 54; Pr. 173, D. 377, 1. 2; Pr. 190, D. 362, 1. 38; Pr. 187, D. 366, 1. 196); "sus reales palacios" (Pr. 164, D. 354, 1. 149); "palacio imperiale" (Pr. 166, D. 356, 1. 416); "gran palacio sagrado" (Pr. 177, D. 370, 1. 2).
The castle is, of course, more typically Castilian: „castillos fuertes" (Pr. 193, D. 373 1. 107); "el castillo de Montalban" (Pr. 192,1. 10, 180); "en Castilla esta un castillo que se llama Rocafrida" (Pr. 179, D. 384, 1. 1, 2); "el castillo, que es muy fuerte y torreado" (D. 609, 1. 10); "el castello de Luna" (D. 622, 1. 47; D. 264. 1. 19); "castillo fuerte" (D. 658, 1. 6); "castillo nombrado" (D. 829, 1. 6); "el castillo y fortaleza fuertes son a maravilla" (D. 923, 1. 21, 22); ese castillo nombrado" (D. 955, 1. 36); "un castillo esta en Consuegra qu'en el mundo no le ha tale" (Pr. 69a, D. 974, 1. 5, 6); "castillo de gran valia" (D. 1038,1. 36); "ese castillo nombrado" (D. 1049, 1. 12); "aquel castillo famoso" (D. 1182, 1. 1); "castillo fuerte" (Pr. 120, D. 330, 1. 7).
Ballad personages look out from windows or, more frequently, from high towers: "ventana grande" (Pr. 173, D. 377, 1. 268); "en un alto mirador" (D. 1137, 1. 19); "altos miradores" (Pr. 134, D. 1131, 1. 13);" en altas torres" (Pr. 194, 1. 20); "un alta torre" (D. 836, 1. 7); "un torre mas alta" (D. 848, 1. 27); "altas torres" (D. 1082, 1. 11); "una torre, la mas alta que tenia" (Pr. 102, 1. 20; Pr. 102a, D. 1250, 1. 40; Pr. 102b, D. 1249, 1. 46); "una torre la mas alta de Toledo" (Pr. 128, D. 5, 1. 1); "famosas torre" (D. 1370, 1. 30); "sus altas torres" (D. 259, 1. 30); " altas torres" (Pr. 174, 1. 34); "una alta torre" (Pr. 175, D. 382, 1. 137); "una torre de muy gran escuridad" (Pr. 190, D. 362, 1. 165, 166).
In towers of the latter type lay the dark dungeons: "una prision de muy gran escuridad" (Pr. 188, D. 369, 1. 176); "la larga prision" (D. 623, 1. 40); "mi prision tan aborrecida y larga" (D. 625, 1. 10); "la vuestra prision esquiva" (D. 627, 1. 28); "la dura prision" (D. 636, 1. 11); "en cruel prision" (D. 701, 1. 2); "en fuertes prisiones" (D. 712, 1. 91); "perpetua carcel" (D. 919, 1. 25); "carceles muy escuras" (Pr. 65, D. 966, 1. 117); "esta obscura



prision" (D. 992, 1. 53); "la prision obscura" (D. 994, 1. 58); "las obscuras prisiones" (D. 995, 1. 26); la prision obscura (D. 996, 1. 6); "esta prision tan brava" (D. 116, 1. 70); "esta prision que fué tan larga" (D. 1201, 1. 38); "prisiones muy esquivas" (Pr. 108, 1. 31).
A few towered villas are mentioned: la villa es muy torreada (D. 944, 1. 5); "esa villa torreada" (Pr. 71, D. 1039, 1. 4); "era villa muy nombrada" (Pr. 88a, D. 1102, 1. 76).
Cities were also fortified places; "la fuerte ciudad" (D. 1066, 1. 49; D. 1076, 1. 11); "la ciudad fortificada" (D. 1078, 1. 42); "esa ciudad torreada" (Pr. 71a, D. 1040, 1. 4); "tus ricas ciudades" (Pr. 4, D. 594, 1. 25); "una ciudad famosa" (D. 1032, 1. 17); la gran ciudad que Napoles se decia" (Pr. 101, D. 1227, 1. 13); gran ciudade" (Pr. 164, D. 354, 1. 473); "esa nombrada ciudade" (Pr. 166, D. 356, 1. 478); "un gran ciudad" (Pr. 189, D. 371, 1. 371); "ciudades en tierra llana" (Pr. 193, D. 373, L 108).
Gardens are often in the picture; maidens are not surprised in their bowers as in the English ballad, but in their fathers gardens. "cogiendo rosas y flores en la huerta de su padre (Pr. 121, D. 7, 1. 19, 20); "cogiendo rosas y flores en un vergel de su padre (Pr. 124, D. 8, 1. 15, 16); "cogiendo rosas y flores en un jardin que tenia" (Pr. 130, 1. 55, 56); "en la huerta de los naranjos" (Pr. 142, D. 1459, 1. 43; "la huerta de San Denis (Pr. 177a, 1. 293); "una huerta muy florida de jasmines y arrayan (D. 368, 1. 23, 24); "huerto real" (Pr. 190, D. 362, 1. 138); "huerta de mi padre" (Pr. 195, D. 191, 1. 71); "el jardin de las damas" (D. 587, 1. 1); "tus verdes huertas (D. 836, 1. 45); frescas huertas y jardines, de naranjales y olivos" (D. 1034, 1. 197, 198); este jardin sombrio" (Pr. 161a, D. 321, 1. 4).
Baths, an introduction of the Moors, are mentioned in two ballads: "de los banos de banar" (Pr. 178, 1. 2); "a los banos, a los banos de banar" (Pr. 190, D. 362, 1. 81, 82).
Several luxurious tents occur: "una rica tienda, de oro bien guarnecida" (Pr. 5. D. 602, 1. 7, 8); "una tienda la mas rica que se viera entre cristianos" (D. 849, 1. 53, 54); una tienda de seda bermeja, rica, de muy extranas labores, labradas a la morisca (D. 927, 1. 260—263); "muchas tiendas de oro, seda y brocado



(D. 1120, 1. 3, 4; D. 1121, Pr. 93, 1. 3, 4); "con trescientos de las tiendas de oro, seda y brocado" (Pr. 126. D. 2, 1. 21, 22); "su tienda real" (Pr. 178, 1. 240, 364).
The boats that are mentioned are called "galeras": "cien galeras de remar" (Pr. 2, D. 583, 1. 44); "una galera negra" (Pr. 63, D. 951, 1. 17); "una galera que no hay tal en la mar" (Pr. 97, D. 1180, 1. 3, 4); "una galera bastarda" (D. 1190, 1. 3); "la galera real" (D. 1191, 1. 9); "una galera de oro y seda tapizada" (D. 1194, 1. 56).
Beds occasionally receive epithets; "Blandas y apuestas camas" (D. 679, 1. 20); "una extremada cama" (D. 1094, 1. 603); "una cama de Turquia" (D. 1193, 1. 45); "en cama de rosas" (Pr. 144, 1. 9); "mi cama las duras penas" (Pr. 125, D. 300, 1. 3).
9. Occupations. Both Christian and Moorish festivals are mentioned in Spanish ballads: "costosisimas fiestas" (D. 611, 1. 25); "grandes fiestas" (D. 635, 1. 4; Pr. 124, D. 354, 1. 525, 2052); "gran fiesta hacen los moros" (Pr. 75, D. 1045, 1. 3); "fiestas asaz" D. 1055, 1. 8); "Fiestas muy grandes" (Pr. 80, 1. 8); "grande fiesta y zambra" (D. 1115, 1. 24); "grandes fiestas" (D. 1137, 1. 14); "grande fiesta" (Pr. 162, D. 1228, 1. 208); "ricos fiestas" (Pr. 164, D. 354, 1. 493); "muy ricas fiestas (Pr. 176, D. 383, 1. 149); "grandes fiestas se hacian, que no se pueden contar" (Pr. 187, D. 366, 1. 283, 284); "gran fiesta se ha celebrado, la cual dicen de San Jorge, patron de Aragon llamado" (D. 367, 1. 10—12); "gran fiesta en la ciudad" (ib., 1. 396); "gran fiesta he ordenado" (Pr. '89, D. 371, 1. 316); "grandes fiestas se hicieron, con mucha solemnidad" (Pr. 194, 1. 237, 238).
There were various forms of entertainment at these fiestas: "el gran torneo" (Pr. 2, D. 583, 1. 7); "muy renida justa" (Pr. 14, 1. 15); "un rico juego de canas" (D. 1137, 1. 16); "hacen juegos de canas" (D. 1141, 1. 179); "jugando dados y canas (D. 379, 1. 20); "juegen los dos a las tablas" (Pr. 121, D, 7, 1. 3); "jugando tablas" (D. 376, 1. 87); "las tablas jugar" (Pr. 173, D. 377, 1. 4); "taiier y bailar la zambra" (D. 113, 1. 12); "cantando .... con muy dulca melodica" (Pr. 5a, D. 602, 1. 15, 16); "tanendo .... con muy extrana harmonia" (Pr. 5a, D. 602, 1. 13, 14); "al dulzor del instrumento" (D. 986, 1. 10); bullfights are mentioned in the



following places: "corren toros y bohordan caballeros estamidos (D. 635, 1. 5, 6); "jugando iban las canas, ricos pendones en ellas labrados por sus amigas" (D. 1045, 1. 6—8); "toros y juegos de canas" (D. 1115, 1. 32); "corriendo cada dia toros, y bohordando tablados" (Pr. 10, D. 634, 1. 15, 16).
Guy le Strange, in his selection of Spanish ballads, gives the following explanation of the game of los tablados : the game of los tablados was a kind of quintan, played on a board (tablado) on wnich were set pins or baulks of wood (las tablas), and these had to be hit or overthrown by a javelin or short lance (bohordo) hurled from a distance; whence the word bohordar, to throw the javelin". The difficulty depended on the fact that the tablado was set up at a considerable height. The word tablas was also used in reference to a table game of draughts or chequers, spoken of as the juego de tablas.



CHAPTER III.
The second Continental ballad-group I have studied, the socalled Folkeviser of Denmark, is particularly rich in epithets; Professor W. M. Hart, in his "Ballad and Epic" rightly refers to 'the inevitable epithet" attributed to maidens, "en jomfru sk0n".
1. The natural world: There is no direct praise to be found of Denmark as a country, but there are three instances of Danish men being praised as pious, noble, and good respectively: "dy danske mend er saa frume" (31A, 9; B, 7; C, 14). The Danish landscape is frequently referred to, with its hills and dales, woods and thickets, moors and fields, sea and stream, wind and waves. When mountains are mentioned, they lie in mythical or foreign lands: Glarberget" (3A, 2, B, 1, 3; D, 1); "det Bierg var baade h0it oc glat" (ib., D, 2); "det Glarbierg k0n" (3D, 6); "Glasbjaerg" (3E, 1, 2); "Bjerget saa hart" (11D, 2f); "Bratingsberrig" (16A, 5); "saa h0jt it bjerg" (41A, 21); "de bierge blaa" (50A, 12, 13); "Goliat-Bjaerg" (70E, 5, 6, 10); "bly-berrit" (87A, 2, 3; B, 3; C, 3); "biergedt hinn bronne" (374, A, 10); "de engelandske bjaerge" (416F, 3). The same applies to the words "Hald" and "Fjeld": "y horden Hald" (11A, 19); "den harde Stenhald" (1 IC, 16); "under hi0gen Hald" (10A, 9); " paa haarden Hald" (27A, 26); "den haarde Hald" (67D, 18; E, 24); "Qrnen sidder paa h0jen Hald" (440B, 1); "feld saa blaa" (50A, 35, 36).
More familiar are the hills and slopes of the home country: "de store H0je" (18D, 26); "ellffue-quindis h0g" (46A, 18); "elffuerhöy (46B, 12); "enn liden Thue" (145A, 50); "under gr0nnen Lide" (9E, 1; 10B, 30; 16A, 4; B, 5; 17A, 16; B, 21, etc.); "op under de gr0ne Lide (7C, 7, 12; 9A, 19); "offuer bierge och h0ffue lide" (476A, 12); "offuer en saa gr0n en lide" (112B, 6); "op under saa gr0n en lide" (7F, 7; 116, refrain) et passim.
Valleys invariably are called deep: "de dybe Dale" (9G, 37);



"Bjerg og dyben Dalle" (17B, 23); "i dybene Dale" (52D, 13); "udi dybe-en Dal, udi de m^rke Gr0n-Skove" (360E, 5); et passim.
The earth is called Jord or Muld, and receives a number of varying epithets: "under sorten Jord" (49A, 15; 70C, 7, 8; 90A, 5, 13, etc.); "den sorteste Jord" (13B, 14; 89E, 4); "den gr^nne Jord" (38C, 4; 70A, 12, B, 17; 112G, 16, etc.); "i christin iordt" (20E, 55); "i christen Jord" (63, 20); "den danske iord" (87B, 13); "den bare iord" (87A, 55); "landjorden" (95A, 14); "i heden iord" (75B, 15); "faederne-iord" (191. 1. 19); "den t0rreste Jord" (249E,
11); "for denne Verdens Jord" (305A, 24); "baade guld och grjfane iord" (348B, 14); "thendt spanske iordt" (479E, 20). Under sorten Muld" (90A, 1; B, 2); "under sortten Muld" (127A, 73; B, 62); "under sorten Mold" (183B, 30).
Fields are usually described as "green", occasionally as fair and "flowering": "paa gr0nnen Eng" (37G, 11, 24; 70B, 13); di gr^nne Enge" (IA, 1; 23C, 5); "de gr0ne Enge" (1B, 1; 6B, 13; 9B, 37, etc.); "saa gr0n en Eng" (53A, 7; 75 C, 23, etc.); Guld og gr0nnen Eng" (144G. 24); "for offuen de gr0ne Enge, for synder ligger ved Aae" (165, refrain); "i blomstrende Eng" (267E,
7); "i fageren Eng" (271B, 28). _
Moors are black, dark, wild, or green; "thisse vilde Hiede" (7B,
12); "offuer den sorte Haede" (IOC, 24; G, 25); "di brede Hiede" (19A, 16); "offuer den gr0ne hede" (19C, 2; 31C, 28); i vilden Hede" (57, 14); "ah paa den suorte Hiedde" (17A, 12; B, 15); "offuer all Danmarckis hede" (239E, 7); "den brune Hiede" (277B, 34); "Troldens Hede" (361, 7); "den m0rke Hed" (203C, 4) et passim.
Forests, woods, and thickets abound; "y-giemmell thi gr^nne Skove" (7C, 21); "i gienom de gr0ne skoffue" (10E, 12, 13); "gunnen skouff" (49A, 43); "den store skoff" (27B. 15); "saa gr0n en skouff" (49A, 60); "at villende skoffue" (52D, 12); de gr^nne skouge" (53B, 2); "paa vildene Skow" (64B, 70); "I0ffuegr0nn skoff" (76B, 30); "i gieemill m0rkenn skuoff" (70A. 15); "de m0rcke Skoffue" (70C, 17); "rosens-skouff" (108F, 13); "de tycke skoffve" (172B. 7); "skoffven y-saa gr0nnen" (193A. refrain); "Far nu vel i Lunden og udi gr0nne Skove" (286A, refrain), et passim. "Y gunnen Lund" (12B, 2); "y rossens Lund"



(12A, 1, 3); "i de gr0nneste Lunde" (57, 16); "i gr0nneren Lund" (65B, 7); "i r0den Rosenslund" (46G, 2); "den gr0nne lundt" (70B, 26), et passim. "I-genom thett m0rcke riss" (172A, 9); "igennem de tycke riis" (ib., B, 8); "udi de tykke Ris" (145A, 59): "i tycken Riss" (185, 6), et passim.
Naturally there is much mention of sea and stream: "den wylde haffuen" (33A, 2); "paa vilden haff" (70B, 13); "det brede Haff" (70C, 16); "saa brett en hauff" (68A, 23); "den vilde haff" (68B, 7); "wilde haffue" (72B, 46, 47); "den salte S0" (12C, 3: 78A, 16, etc.); "den sallthe s0y, huad helder den er wred eller blide" (312A, 23), et passim.
The sea shore is invariably referred to as "the white sand": "den hvide Sand" (5A, 11); "paa hviden Sand" (33C, 649A, 39), et passim. Once we find: "den i0dske sand" (87A, 19), once "det tydske Sand" (114B, 29), and once "det suenske Sand"; the gender of the word vacillates.
Sometimes the sea is described poetically as "the blue waves" or "the wild waves": "B0lgen hin blaa" (36C, 14; 42A, 11; 48B, 3, etc.); "de stercke Bylge" (2B, 4; 142A, 9; 218A, 10, etc.); "de bratte B0lge" (12C, 3); "de b0lger lecte saa stride" (49B, 42); "b0lgen gi0ris tung" (220A, 92); "den vrede b0lge" (ib., 105); "skam faa de B0lgere grumm" (387H, 23).
Going abroad is called going to foreign or heathen countries: "y fremmede Land" (4B, 1; 21B, 12; 72B, 8, etc..); "i fremmed Land der f0des mangen stalt AEdeling" (353, refrain); "den hedenske Land" (5A, 5, 7, 9, 11); "de 0ster Lande" (11C, 25); "paa din egene Landt" (5B, 7); "den Hedenkonges Land" (100B, 2, 3); "aedeligste Beyland" (133A, refrain); "aedle Behemerland" (133B, refrain); "vores eget F0deland" (146E, 10, 11).
The wind that wafted the seafarers to foreign parts is generally, in ballad language, a gentle breeze: "B0r hin blide" (26A, 4; 33C, 5; 71B, 4; 72B, 14, etc.); "bliden B0r" (36B, 12); "B0rren bleser saa mildelig" (32A, 16, 17); "saa blid enn b0r" (77A, 25); "b0rrenn saa god" (87A, 34); "b0ren blaeste saa blide" (220D, 60); "b0ren bles saa stride" (480A, 47). Fierce winds and storms occur also: "den haaredeste Wynnd" (18C, 42); "weier och westen-wind" (88C, 7); "en god Sejlvind" (101G, 9); "en god vind" (102, 9);



"Vinden den er haard" (229E, 11); "wierr och weestenn-wynd, dy bleste dy lygg for 0stenn ind (337A, 27); Vinden den blid (477C, 1); "vesten storm" (49B, 33); "saa sterck en storm" (325A, 3); "en flyendis storm" (ib., B, 3).
The word Fjord is used to indicate the sea: "den salte Fjord (33B, 1); "offuer sallthenn fiord" (70A, 12); "i salten Fiord" (154 C, 39, 40), et passim. Likewise the word Flod, which means river in modern Danish: "for salten flodt (40C, 12); "paa vilden Hoede" (70B, 17); rivers are called strong streams: "for striden Str0m" (39A, 24; 40A, 15; 88A, 6, etc.); "Str0mme rinder stride" (5A, 6, 12); "stridende Str0m" (183E, 16, F, 18); "de stridige Stramme" (57, 8).
Sun, moon, and stars have their epithets: "Solen skinte r0d 82S, 44, T, 48); "Solen skinte blank" (ib., T, 49); "Solen skinte hvid" (ib., S, 45); "Solen bliver blodig og r0d" (17, 19); Sol som Guld hint r0de" (51, refrain); "mod den klare Sol" (131A, 10); "den velsignede Sol" (301, 5); "Solen skinner blid" (267 L,
9); "Solen skinner hed" (ib., M, 11); den hiedde Sol (342A,
10); "den klareste Sol" (431K, 9); "Maanen skinner saa klar" (145A, 67); "Stiernenne smaa" (90A, 30); "den liuse Stjaerne" (96, 6); "Himmelens Stjaerner" (283, 13); "for lyssen stiernne" (362A, 11); "den blanke Staern" (ib., H, 7).
Of the times of day no great mention is made; the night receives much attention: midnight is mentioned times out of number, nights are called cold or long, and the light summer nights are praised; "den m0rcke Nat" (10C, 24, G, 35); "m0rcke natt' (20G, 18); "Natten er lius (73B, 26); den Nat saa lang (73B, 33); saa ondt en natt" (79B, 8); "en Vinternat" (81A, 2); "dend langeste nat" (94A, refrain); "den langelige nat" (ib., B, refrain); 'mange wagen natt" (203A, 19); "den midsommers-not er stacket och blid" (220a, 8, E, 6); "en midsommers-nat saa blide" (249C, 1); "den blide Sommernat" (306, 0, 7); Natten er kold (277D, 26); "Natten den er kold og lang" (397C, 16); "mangen god lang vinters-nat" (426B, 11).
Of the times of the year, gentle summer is praised, whilst winter is called cold and long: "Imod saa blid en somer" (66A, C, refrain); "den s0de sommer" (97C, refrain); "den Sommer saa blide" (177,



4); "Denn somer er bolld" (277A, refrain); "den blide Sommer er kommen nu" (370A, refrain); "Men sommeren hand er gr0n" 379A, refrain); "sommerenn hiinn bolde" (355A, 1).
„Igiennem den vinther saa kold" (252B, refrain); "wintter hinn kaalde" (355A, 1); "vinter saa kold" (356A, 1); "den lange wienther" (360A, 5); "den kolde Winter, som kommer nu" (370B, refrain).
The favourite trees of the Danish balladist are the lime-tree, the thorn, and the oak; the willow and the walmut also occur: "De fejreste Traeer, som man kalder Siljer og Linde" (56CD, 1, 2); "huide sylier" (76B, 38); "det ypperste Wintrae" (126D, 160); det faverste Viintrae (126E, 130); "et Skib skulde bygges af Valn0detrae, eren hiin dett feyreste thre i skoffuen" (462, refrain); "Egen den hvide" (10D, 8); "en eg saa stor" (474B, 84, 85); "Linden alt saa gr0n" (7D, 34); "den gr0nne Lind" (70, 18); "en Lind saa gr0n (56C, 3; 70B, 28; 272B, 15 etc.); "under granen Lind (10D, 12); Linden saa bold" (66A, 10) et passim; "Torn saa stinde" (10G, 18); "de tykke Torn" (22A, 9); "med hvasse Torn" (83B, 33).
Grass is green, and the word L0g (leek) is used for fine herbs for eating purposes: "staar Graesset gr0nt" (90A, 18); "icke andet greess ind L0g (183A, 4); "icke anditt graess ind L0g" (249A, 5); den gr0nne L0g (239M, 7, 10); "icke anden gress end l0g" (403, 11).
Flowers and herbs growing in gardens (Urtegaarde) are indicated by the general name of Urter": "Urter blaae oc gr0n" (73B, 31); Urter hvide oc r0de (ib., 32); "ieg plockitt dej urtter buode hwide och blaa (197A, 35); "di urter, di waer baaede brun och blaa (21 IA, 20, 21); "dy urtte buode brune och blaa" (212A, 23); "di midsommers-urter di gi0r mig intet got" (215, 14); "for nu gror Elskovens Urter" (277E, 4451, refrains).
Apples, growing in the „Abildgaard", are mentioned pretty frequently: "Guldaeble" (37E, 17); "det r0de Aeble" (ib., 18); "det t0rre Aeble" (98B, 9); "det Aeble saa r0d" (306P, 17); "et Aebel udaf Guld (437C, 7); the appletree is described in the latter ballad as: den dejligste Abel (437C, 6) and 'Abelen saa bolde" (ib., 7).



The words for flower, rose, and lily are used more often as symbols than to indicate the actual flowers: "denn edelig rosensblome" (22B, 22);"blomster brune och blaa" (73A, 26, 27); "en Sommers-blomme" (95B, refrain); "den blomster sk0n" (126D, 23); "den beske Blomme" (139B, 13); "Roser og aedelige Blomster" (146G, refrain); "di blomster saa bla" (167A, 6); ieg plochett thuo blomster wor gwlle och r0de (197A, 36); saa h0ffsk en Blomme" (295A, 1B, 1); "de Blomster baade hvide og blaa" (305A, 1, 2); "besken Blomm" (311L, 11); "ten aedilig fyaalss-blaame" (258A, 34, 35); "Roser huide och r0de" (73A, 28); "enn Rosse saa r0d" (85, 11. 12); "enn rosenn r0dt" (86D, 26); "hun var en rosen baade dejlig och huid" (126D. 6); "de Roser baade hvide og blaa" (305A, 1,7); "Roser leffred brune" (262E, 2); "Figen-Roser og andre r0de Roser" (435, refrain), et passim. "Den h0ffske lillie" (111A, refrain); "en chresten lilie-wand' (128A, 30); den h0uiske lilie-wand" (138F, 16); "de klare lilier" (194A, 13); "klaren lille" (225A, 10); "denn lylly, hun waar saa thr00st" (310, 12); min aller-venestte Helle" (332D, 13, G, 16); "den lilie saa ung" (347B, 5); "den aller-klareste lille" (259E, 52), et passim.
In the animal world birds occupy an important position, in reality, in dreams, and in comparisons; a sad person is often compared to a lonely little bird on a branch: "liden Fugl paa Kviste" (201, 31); "vildene Fugl i Skov" (20L, 32); "den wilde fougell, paa quisten saed" (34B, 6, 7, 8); "alle smaa Fugle" (40E, 23); "thi liille smaa fulle" (46A, 9); "fauren liden Ful" (56E, 6, 8); "en fremmed vild Fuel" (57, 5, 6); "en enlig Fugl paa Kvist" (82R, 19); "eenlig Fugl paa Strand (83G, 7); for, de lidene fugle de s0rger, for vin ter, hand wil komme" (267F, refrain); et passim.
Birds mentioned by name are: Duck, dove. falcon, hawk, crow, lark, nightingale, eagle, and raven. These receive various epithets: "en liden aand" (239A, 13, B, 9); "en liden hvid and" (ib., I, 6); "enn lidenn annd" (437A, 6; B, 10); these occur in dreams. Falcons likewise occur in dreams: Falken och han er graa (7A, 51), "Falken och han er hvidt" (7E, 8; H, 30); "den liden falck" (34A, 7); "Falken den graa" (48A, 5); "Falken saa blaa" (48B, 6); "falcke graa" (66A, 9); saa wred en falck (138H, 5); enn falck saa fienn" (254D, 7), et passim. "Denn simple Due" (173, 9); "saa



liden en Due" (56D, 2); "de duer smaa" (68F, 9); "to Duer flyvendes, og de var meget hvid" (100C, 11G, 14); "de duer vor alle hvide" (170B, 5); "duer blaa" (171A, 11; 181B, 9); "en liden duve" (239B, 11); "douwer hvid" (446F,39); "dy wyldde dyffuer" (240A, 10, 11).
Hawks occur in the combination "hawk and hound", as in English and Scottish ballads, and I found two instances of epithets, "hardy" and "proud" respectively: "en H0g hin haarde" (7D, 38; F, 42; G, 31); "den stolte H0g" (173, 5, 6). The crow I only found once used with an epithet, in allegorical meaning: "den s0lige Krage. hun var saa sorrigfuld" (173, 3). The lark is often mentioned as singing in the morn; once: "den lille Laerke" (338A, 5). The nightingale is also of frequent occurrence, and is generally called "little": "saa lydell en nachtegall" (56C, 3); "den lydell nachtegall" (ib., C, 13); "en Nattergal fin" (57, 2); "s0den Nactegals Sang" (73B. 33); "der sad en lille Nattergal og sang" (217E, 32); "den Nattergal med s0rgelig Stemm" (ib., 1, 27), et passim. The eagle is mentioned in allegory and as a real bird: allegorically in: "den gamle $)rn" (173, 3, 6, 10, 11); "thenn fattige $)rn" ib., 19); "denne skadelige 0rn" (150, 21); realistically we have: "$)rnen hin brune" (7A, 54; D, 36); "en 0rn och hand er r0dt" (7E, 7); "du grume 0rrenn" (12A, 1); "den vilde 0rn" (12B, 2); "saa vildt enn $)rnn" (33B, 3, 15); et passim. Ravens occur in dreams and in reality: "Ravnen altsaa bruun" (7D, 41); "Ravmen hin bruune" (7G, 35); saa wyld en rauffuen" (33A, 2); "en Raffn med Vinger brunne" (61, 2); "raffuen hin brune" (62, 25); "to Ravne flyvendes saa sort (101G, 15); "den adell-raffn" (138A, 8, 12); "den wilde wald-raffuen" (138E, 8); "hvide Ravne" (340A, 9, 10).
In the forest there are various kinds of deer and other wild animals, the word "Dyr" meaning both "animal" and "deer": "dy wylde Dyr" (12 A, 4, 5; 34A, 6; 52D, 2; 69, 7, etc.); "Dy wildeste dyr och dyrren ud-aff-skuoffuen" (52 ABCD, refrains); "de lille smaa dyr" (53B, 2); "de erlige dyer som mandt kalder hjorte och hinder' (56C, 2); "dyr saa sky0ne" (56C, 3); "mange underlig diur" (57, 20); "vilde diur i Lunde" (91, 14, 15); " saa lidett ett diur, mand kaller thett werre en harre" (112A, 8); "di wilde diur at bede (348A, 4); "edeligt diur" (ib., B, 19); "feyreste Dyr, udi



Skoven randt" (381DEF, refrains), et passim. Hart, hind, and roe are mentioned specifically: "den vilde hjort (34B, 7, 8; 67C, 10, 12); "den tamme hiort" (67D, 9); "en tamer hiorth baade h0ffuisk och findt" (113, 3); den tamme hiort (348A, 10; B, 19, 351, 21); "den liden Hind" (56CD, 1); "en lidenn hinnd" (56A, 5); "saa wild en hinndt" (285A, 5); "den vilde raa" (20G, 18); "to liden smaa raad-dyer" (53A, 12); en liden raad (53A, 13); at bede vildene raa" (112D, 4); "enn stoer roe" (183C, 5) et passim.
Other wild animals are bears, hares, boars, and wolves: "Bjórne hvide" (34A, 68); "Bj0rn hin vrede" (41C, 2); "thy huide bi0rn" (70A, 28); "den bi0rn saa led" (64B, 2, 3); tolff huide bi0rne (70B, 27); "de store bi0rne" (71E, 13); "to Bj0rne, og de vare sort" (76G, 4); "to Hvidbj0rne" (76L, 3); "vild-bi0rn" (123, 8); "de bi0rne smaa" (297D, 4), et passim. "Then wilde hare" (112A, 10); "den lille hare" (ib., B, 12); "de vildeste Harer" (416C, 6); "vildesten Harer" (ib., 3, 4); et passim. "Vilde Svin" (145H, 2; M, 3); "de Vildsvin to" (297H, 3); "saa sort et Svin" (311G, 4); an allegorical use occurs in two ballads: dett skulde grissen gielde, dett gammell suin haffuer giort?" (497A, 11; B, 12; C, 11; F, 15; 480A, 60; D, 46; E, 63). "Vilden Ulv i Skove" (53B, 6); "Ulve graa" (56B, 20; CD, 15); "graa wllffuen" (54A, 15; B, 3); thend gamble vlff saa graa" (54A, 22); "ulf saa graa (57, 10, 24); den vlleff graa" (297A, 4); "saa vild en ulff" (285B, 5). et passim.
There are a few instances of lions: "den selige l0ffue" (9B, 18); "den gode L0we" (9G, 37); "en l0ffue gram" (14, 9); "en l0ffue gram" (14, 9); en l0ffue saa gram (70A, 25).
Cattle is once called "det b0vende Fae" (40A, 22), while "700 0xenn sk00ne" (141A, 14) are mentioned.
Fish are also poorly represented: "theen liilde smaa fisk (46A, 7, 8); "de lidenn smaa fiske" (ib., B, 6).
Hounds are called "Hund" or "Rakker": "den ussel Hund" (10D, 7, 8; E, 7); "then gode Hund" (52C. 7); "hundde smaa" (67B, 10); "hynders lidenn hund' (73A, 11, 22; B, 15, 28); de smaa hunde" (89B, 36); "min lidel Hund" (183A, 19); "tolv glubske Hunde" (83G, 6, 25); "min lillebitte Hund" (311D, 4); "en brun blisset Hund" (31 IK, 5, 16); "en r0dskjaegget Hund" (311M, 4), et passim. "De lidel smaa Rakker, haffuer skarpe



Tender i Munde" (IOC, 9); "smaa Racker to" (67C, 10); "minn Racker smaa waar wordenn till wilden suinn" (145B, 2), the latter in a dream.
Horses are very extensively represented as foals, chargers, and saddlehorses, with an occasional use of the archaic word "$)rs", A frequent evil dream is that of the charger running away and joining "vilden Stod". The young warrior usually selects a wild colt, which he tames: "en fuolle, den er saa spag" (3A, 1); "min unge fole" (3D, 5); "den goode Foole" (5B, 3); "fuolle, wor spaag" (39A, 9); "Foler saa balde" (58, 3, 8); "saa vaen da havde han Fole og spag" (82A, 8, D, 12, E, 15); "de Foler saa bolde" (186H, 6; 446L, 10); et passim. "Gangers spag" (3E, 1); "Ganger graa" (6B, 4, 29); "Graa Ganger min" (6C, 5); "Ganger hin r0de" (19A, 17); "Ganger r0d" (19B, 13, D, 15; 47, 15); "Ganger graa" (40A, 32); "Ganger hvid" (45, 23, 24; 76A, 14); "sin goede Ganger" (54B, 17); "Ganger prud" (73B, 7, 39); "Ganger saa lett" (126C, 23); et passim. Red and grey are the favourite colours. "Sin guode Hest" (2A, 4, 5); 'den karske hest" (2C, 5); "vores gode Heste" (7, 18); "Riddere og h0je Heste" (297A, 40); "h0jen Hest og Brynje paa" (390A, 6); "hvid Hest og Sadel" (238A, 15); "Du sidder paa din h0je Hest" (228A, 8); "min fuldt godt Hest" (7B, 17); "saa grum en Hest" (30B, 9); "en danske Hest" (31A, 14, 15, 16); "sin lysegule Hest" (46D, 1, 14); "en danne broget Hest" (31C, 20, 21); "h^ffske heste" (297A, 51); "min lille Graahest" (311L, 26); "Hesten den haffuer jeg abild-graa" (314B, 5); "hindis heste er abild-graa" (259E, 43, I, 63); "en Hest saa prud" (263G, 3); "dieris heste haffuer gode gang" (377B, 2), et passim. The alliterative formula "h0jen Hest" is much favoured. $)rs only occurs twice: "0rs hint hvide" (145FG, 10, 11); "denn hvide 0rss" (467A, 78).
2. The Heavenly World. Only a few traces of heathenism are apparent from the ballads. Thor and his "Hammer aff Guld" occur once (IA, 1); there is one mention of the Gjallar Bro: "naar vi finndis paa Gielde-broo" (475A, 163), but the very frequent references to the power of runes and the regret at loss of life would seem to indicate that Christian thought had not penetrated very



deep: "s^ffuene runer" (4A, 33); "thi rame roner" (12A, 10); "de rame roner" (37A, 10); "rame ronner" (44A, 20); "thi rame runer" (77A, 16, 17, 18) et passim, also in later ballads. "Sith unge Liiff" (5B, 2, 6); "min sk0nne ung Liif" (6A, 1); "dett wenne unge Liff" (ib., 27); "det allerweniste liff" (20A, 1); "rnitt venne liff" (91, 11, 12) et passim. "Den ynkelige D0d" (58, 49); saa snar en D0dt" (86D, 22); "den haarde D0d" (99, 4, 5); "den haareste Dód" (126B, 99); "saa haard en D0dt (ib., D, 168, E, 132) et passim.
Heaven and Heil arre only mentioned in one ballad: "i det frydelig Himmerig" (90A, 14); "i det sorteste Helvede" (ib., 16).
God's judgment is mentioned once as; 'Guds h0jeste Dom (437C, 11).
Angels are mentioned several times as "God's angels Engle smaa" (101A, 72); "de Guds Engle" (ib., B, 15, F, 12); 'Guds engel i Himmerig" (135A, 25); "Guds engle i Himmerigs Rige" (ib.. C, 38); "en guds engell" (408C, 25); "alle de engele, i
himmelen er" (ib., E, 26).
The Christian festivals of Christmas, Easter, and Whitsun, as well as Sunday, are frequently the times of action; en heilig Juledag" (121B, 27); "en godt iull" (151ACEF, 1); "Det var om en iule afften, saa heilige vare de tide" (290A, 7, 11); en bedre Ywl" (296A, 21); "thenn heilig paaske-morgenn" (112A, 1); enn signnede paaske-morgen" (ib., C, 1); saa glad.... som engelen var paa paaskemorgen, vor-herre stod op aff d0de (290A. 24); "en heilig Paaskedag" (31 IA, 11); "en heilig Paaskermorgen" (431M, 35); "y-mod pindz-dag, i-mod denn heilige tiid (318A, 13); "en pindze-dags morgenn, der skouffuen gr0ndiss best" (ib., B, 10); "den heilige pinssedag, saa heilig wor alle de tider (474B, 17, 20); "den heilige pinse-dage" (49B, 61); en heilig s0nddag (72A, 12, B, 13); "en heilig s0ndag" (136A, 4, B, 5); 'en heilig syndag" (86K. 4); "en heilig S0ndag, Messen var god at h0re" (159B, 16, F, 25); "enn heellig s^nndag" (248, 10), et passim.
Candlemas is mentioned once: "Kyndelmisse Dag (144F, 13), and so is Lady Day: "Vorfrue-Dag i H0st" (267H, 10). The Day of Judgment occurs several times: "indtil Dommedag (305Ae, 21);



"Dommedags Dav" (ib., O, 17); "il Dommedag" (415C, 21, E. 17); "Dommens Dag" (445R, 10).
Several Christian Saints are mentioned, especially St. Olaf: "St. Oluff' (50A, 27, 28, 32, etc.): "Sanncte Olluff" (50B, 1, 9, 16, 17); "Sant Oluff, den Konning saa bold" (51, 1, 2, 4, etc.); "S. Oluff hin gode" (51, 19); "Sancte J0ren" (103A, 16); "Gud og Santé Paal" (132D, 36); "Gud og Santé Knud" (ib., 37); "Gud oc her sancte Lusies" (166A, 28); "Sanktii Berete rad den stercke dr0mme" (475B, 78); "Sankte Birgitte" (ib., A, 76); "Sankte Dorothee" (ib., C, 48); "Skte. Oluff" (ib., B. 99).
God and Christ are frequently invoked: "den wolde Gud" (3A, 16): "den 0uerste Gud" (11C, 26; 12A, 8, C, 8; 30A, 18, etc.); "den offuerste Gud" (20D, 6, F, 6, 47, etc.); "Gud-Fader i Himmerig" (20F, 10, G, 4; 21A, 3; 31A, 9, etc.); "Herre GudFader i Hiemerige" (22B, 9; 35A, 28, etc.); "den gode Gud" (51, 19); "Gud-Fader S0nn" (52A, 11); "Herre Gud" (52C, 15; 62, 22, etc.); "Harre Gud" (66A, 21); "den h0yeste Gud" (140G, 2); "them almectist Gud" (142A, 17); "Gud fader och Maria fin" (266H, 106); "den trofaste Gud" (277F, 23); "den aloverste Gud" (377C, 25); "om guodenn drotenn, och saa denn renne m0e" (475A, 42); "Gud hin goede" (487C, 8); et passim. "Christ hin rige" (37A, 48); "Jessu, Marie s0nn" (52B, 5; 88A, 11, 12); "Mariae S0n, som alting monne raade" (64B, 22, 23); "den rige Christ i Himmerig" (145A, 13); "Herre Christ" (94B, 4, 5); "min kjaere Jesus" (98A, 8); "kjaere Jesu" (98B, 7); "den rige Christus" (100A, refrain); "Herre Jesu" (100C, refrain); "rige Chrest i Hiemmerrig" (145A, 13); "Christt offuer Gielle-broë" (256, 4); "Jeesws Maary s0nn" (327A, 24); et passim.
There is a great variety of oaths: "paa min chrestelig thro" (20C, 42); "paa min gode Tro" (ib., I, 38); "paa min chrestlig thro" (26A, 19; 29A, 14; etc.); "paa min christelige throe" (35A, 17, B, 10); "alt paa min chrestelig sand" (88A, 19); "ieg loffuede mig thill den heilige graff paa mine bare fodt adt gange" (182B, 19, C, 17); "ieg loffueet mig en pillegrims-reisse paa mine bare foed at gange" (ib., D, 17); "saa loffuit ieg mig enn rommer-reise oc ind-til Rom at gange" (ib., F, 16); "ieg laffuer paa det heilige graff som Christ stod op, aff d0de" (325B, 22); "jeg loved Vorherre



ved heilig Grav der han for os taalte D0d" (ib., C, 11); "dyre Eede (475A, 106); "wed helgens eed" (418F, 27).
Pilgrims and pilgrimages occur pretty frequently: "alle danske pylgrim" (31A, 1); "en fattig Pyllegrim" (ib., 7); "huer Danske Pillegrim" (ib., C, 3); "en fremmet Pillegrim" (114B, 36); "nogen fattig Pillegrim" (ib., 37); "goeden pillegrem" (233D, 17, 18); "diese fattig pyeligrim" (248, 16); thenn fattig pillegrim" (250A, 17); "selliige pillegrim" (298B, 12); "liiden pillegrim" (ib., 16); "vi fattige pillegrim" (290B, 8); "pillegrim ski0n" (475C, 21); "pillegrim from" (ib., 22); et passim. Pilgrimages were undertaken either to Rome or to the Holy Grave: thill der^ heilige graff (182B, 19, C, 17); "den lange j0rselferd" (281A, 1); "den lange 0rssell-ferd" (ib., E, 1); "en Rumer-rejse" (225G, 8); "den lange Ussel-ferdt" (250F, 2, 4); "en pelegrimsrese hen thill denn heilige graff" (251, 4); "enn Rommer-riesse och thill den heilige grauff" (251, 39); "en pillegrims f?r alt till det heilige land' (354G, 44); et passim.
Churches mentioned in Dansih ballads are nearly all called Mary's church, without further epithets: Marie-kircke (71E, 20; 75B, 15, 20; 83A, 37, etc.). Convents play a rather more important part, there being several so-called "Klosterrovsviser": Kloster under 0" (4A, 48); "$)rsle-kloster" (49B, 68); "Marj-kloster" (75C, 25); "Vestervig kloster" (126A, 128; C, 60; E, 140); ' Vrete kloster" (138A, 4, 5); "Clare kloster" (204B, 25); "Maria-kloster" (220A, 29); "Mare kloster" (339, 18); "Slangerup chloster" (408C, 16); "Lyffsekloster" (467A, 19); et passim.
Grey and black friars are mentioned: "udi Graamunkes Lige (145FG, 2); "suorten Munk" (87A, 8); "udi graa-moncke lige" (289E, 11); "suorte-broder Knud" (475A, 54; B, 56). Nuns are only mentioned once by that name: "de closternonner, op under deriss kape graa" (474B, 37); otherwise they are referred to as "convent maidens": "closter jomfruer" (87A, 10, 11; B, 12; C, 7, 8); "chlosteriomfrauer" (21 IA, 1); "kloester-iomfruer" (220B, 97); et passim.
Priests are usually designated as the parish priest': vor SognePraest" (98A, 7); "then sogenne-prest" (377A, 4); "derris sogneprest" (ib., B, 4); "saa ung en prest" (373, 14); one cleric is



called: "vellert klerck" (479A, 12). Of the higher Church dignitaries only one Archbishop occurs: "Erckebispen prud" (475C, 80); "Aage Erckhisp kaer" (ib.( 195).
3. The nether world. Evil dreams, foreboding dire events, occur very frequently: "di stercke Dr0mme" (20B, 4, 6; CFGIK, 2); "stercke dr0mer" (74A, 11); "sinn stercke dr0m" (144A, 1, 12); "denne farlige Dr0m" (144F, 5); "saa underlige Dr0mme" (144G, 1, 2); "delede Dr0mme" (ib., 21); "min encke-dr0m" (154B, 5, 6); "saa sterche daa waar dieris dr0me" (194A, 1); "morgen-dr0mme din" (239A, 11); "min stercke morgen~dr0me" (239C, 3, 4); "ieg sk0der icke om en s0ffue dr0m" (316B, 7); "en s0ndags-dr0mme" (32IA, 4); "en uvens-dr0m" (ib., 5); et passim.
Evil spirits, or trolds, are of frequent occurrence: "den gamle Trold" (51, 12); "de andre smaa Trolde" (ib., 18);' 'en trold saa led" (1AB, 12); "saa led en trold" (19B, 10; 44B, 15; 56B, 1); 'den lede trold" (30D, 17; 52B, 9); "den lieede throld" (32A, 64; 44A, 12); "throlle saa lede" (39B, 22, 23; 52A, 5); "Throlden hin laede" (41C, 2); "den liedeste trold" (44A, 13; 52A, 7); "den lede hafftrold" (44C, 6); "en styg Bjaergtrold" (47A, 6); "de sorte trolde" (50A, 38, 39); "en haffue-trold" (88A, 9, 10); et passim.
A few times mermaids occur: "kjaere Hafffrue" (5C, 9); "den uselige Hafffrue" (ib„ 11); "den Havfru fin" (42B, 13).
Black magie could cause human beings to assume various disguises, indicated by the word "Ham", covering: "den laede Troldeham" (52D, 27); "fieder-haam" (33A, 19; B, 13; C, 18); Jomfruen i Ulveham" (55); "Jomfruen i Fugleham" (56); 'Jomfruen i Fugleham" (56); "Jomfruen i Hindeham" (58); "Jomfruen i Ormeham" (59); "Ridderen i Hjorteham" (67); Ridderen i Fugleham" (68); "feder-hame" (68C, 3, 4); "fiederham" (74A, 15, 16; 474B, 58).
Twice a dragon is mentioned as "then lede drage" (103A, 3); "saa leed en drage" (ib., B, 2). The more usual appelations is Lindorm": "Lindorm altsaa lieed" (7D, 40); "den sleske Lindorm" (98, 3); "Lindorm led" (57, 21); et passim.
Heil is only mentioned once, in contrast to Heaven (see above): "i det sorteste Helvede" (90A, 16).



On the whole a heathen conception of the nether world is in evidence. lts inhabitants, the dwarfs, occur in several ballads: "saa vild en Duerig" (22B, 8); "wildenn duerrig" (ib., 9, 10); "den wilde duerig" (34B, 43); "den wilde duerrig" (35A, 5, 11; B, 11, 12); "den arige duerrig" (ib., A, 18); "stercke duerige" (ib„ B. 6); "den duerig saa fin" (37A, 38); den ville duerge (ib., B, 3, 9); "den liden Dvaerg" (271K, 34).
The devil occurs once; "den laedeste Dieffuel (52D, 26).
4. Persons: a. Relationships.
The father is generally referred to as "dear", sometimes as "old": "vor gamle fader" (1AB, 13); "kiere Fader vor" (7A, 58); "kiere Fader din" (11D, 45); "deres kiere Fader" (12C, 8); "kiere Fader min" (19A, 10; B, 9); "sin kierre Fader" (20A, 13); "myn kerr Fader" (32A, 24); "min herre fader" (87A, 75); "allerkiereste fader" (108C, 6); "sellige Fader myn" (142A, 8); "sin gamble fader" (290A, 18); et passim.
The mother is even more to the fore. though the term of endearment remains, somewhat monotonously, dear : kaer Moder min (18A, 12; 33C, 10); "min sorrigfuld Moder" (83AB, 32); "min moder hulldt" (6A, 18); "moder faur og fin" (6B. 15); "din moder bold" (7H, 55); "kongens moder gammel og graa (8, 41); hans kierre muodder" (16, ABll); "allerkiaereste Moder min" (18D, 7; 83E, 29); "hans kierre moder" (20BHK, 2; CF, 3); min kerre muoder" (33A, 16, 17); "hindiss sorge-fuld moder" (84B, 27); "kerre muoder" (85, 29, 30); "kierre moder min" (87A, 61); "myn kerre fru modder" (87A, 68, 69); "mynn allerkierist moder" (87A, 75); "kieer muodder mynn" (89A, 8); "kieriste moder din" (138B, 4); "modeer saa haard" (307A, 26) is an exception; hans sullige muodder" (394B, 19); et passim.
The foster-mother is an institution known in all Scandinavian countries, including Iceland; the term of endearment is again "dear": "hans kiere Fostermoder" (20G, 4); 'min kiere Forstermoder" (71C, 4); "Fostermoder kierre" (76B, 8); kier Fostermoder min" (76C. 7); "min kiere Fostermoder" (131D, 9); "min kier Fostermoder" (138C, 6); et passim. An exception is: en Fostermoder strid, hun bleff mig wred och icke blid (239B, 2). Here, however, a stepmother is meant.



The stepmother is painted in the blackest colours: "Stifmoder strydde" (55, 5); "Stifmoder hin stridde" (56AB, 2); "min Steffmoder striid" (56F, 3, 4); "en stifmoder strid" (58, 19); "en stifmoder hun var haard" (66C, 14); "saa striden en sty-moder" (89A, 29); "som stifmoder slem" (89E, 15; E, 12); "stibmoder stride" (111B, 14, 15); "Stifmoder stram og straeng" (2391, 1); et passim. An exception is: "som stifmoder god" (89E, 16; N, 11). One wicked stepfather occurs: "mijnn styffader alt saa gram" (269A, 35).
Godfather and godmother are well disposed: "kierre gudfader min" (93, 7, 16); "myn guode gudmoder" (329A, 4, 5).
When aunts and uncles are mentioned, it is always on the mother's side, perhaps a remainder of the matriarchal system; likewise nephews are always sisters' sons: "allerkieriste Morbroder din" (11D, 45; 133AB, 3); "kaer Morbroder din" (11D, 44); "hans kerre Morbroder" (86A, 4); "kerre Morbroder min" (126G, 61, 70); "kier moder-s0ster min" (482B, 6); an exception is: min moders0ster haardt" (239A, 3).
Uncles and cousins are also indicated by the general term "Fraende": "kiere frende sin" (53A, 14); "min rigge frender (86A, 19; B, 3, 13); "sin riige frender" (298C, 24); "rige frender mine" (306G, 2); "myn rige frender" (312A, 22); "frender bolde" (477B, 13); "hans skellige frende" (392A, 3); "hans neste frende" (392B, 1); et passim.
Brothers and sisters can be designated by the term "S0skende" (German Geschwister): "S0skende smaa" (66A, 8); "kier Sódskind din" (89A, 22); "dine S^skende smaa" (89G, 8); "s^skende smaa" (288, 7); et passim.
Brothers are held dear, or praised as brave: "min raske Breder VII" (4A, 44); "min hierte kaere Broder" (5B, 33); "allerkiereste Broder min" (5C, 28); "min kierre Br0dre" (41A, 9); "myn kerre Broder" (46A, 21); "kiaere broder" (91, 6, 7); "hans raske breder tholl" (353A, 2, 6); et passim.
A relationship almost like that of a brother is that of the "Staldbroder": "kaer Staldbroder min" (3A, 18; B, 9); "min suoren Staldbroder" (3B, 15); "min Stoldbroder tro" (30B, 14; D, 23); "stalbr^der tr0st" (76F, 1); "min gode stalbroder" (161A, 4); "min



raette staalbroder" (ib., B, 4); "kier Stalbroder min" (184C, 9, 15; D, 11, 12); "en stalbroder god" (ib., G, 12); "en Stalbroder skj0n" (271U, 16); "min raette stalbroder" (273AB, 2); sengestalbr0der" (318A, 12); et passim.
A brother-in-law is once called: "Svoger tr0st" (416A, 8).
Sisters are called dear, or sometimes beautiful: S0stre saa va ene" (40A, 27); "kerre Sister myn" (3A, 4; 46A, 12, etc.); "kiereste S0ster myn" (ib., D, 9); "saa vaene S0stre to (12C, 7); "spils0ster" (77B, 19, 21); "kier s0ester fin" (84G, 21); "s0ster alerkerist" (87A, 45); "min kaer S0ster, saa fager og fin" (415B,
17); et passim.
The sister s son is looked upon by his uncle with almost more affectiom than the son: "kiere s0ster~s0nne sin" (2B, 12; C, 16); "min kaer S0sters0n" (7D, 21); "kieer S0sters0n" (18C, 60); et passim. The sister s daughter, too, is eyed with affection; kier S0sterdatter din" (127A, 2); "kier S0sterdatter fin" (ib., B, 38, 49; C, 5).
The son is the mother's special pride: "kierre S0nnen min (2A, 7); "saa god en S0n" (2C, 9); "saa raske haver han S0nner tho" (19BD, 1); "saa vaen en S0n" (33C, 7); min S0n saa prud (46B,
18); "saa h0ffuisk en S0n" (49A, 67); "saa faver en S0n (68A, 27); "S0nner smaa" (84G, 2); "saa underlig en S0n" (126B, 42); "eders unge Sdn" (145FG, 14); et passim.
Daughters are generally dear: "Kiere Datter min (11D, 11; 37A, 33; etc.); "kieriste Daatter" (19D, 24; 20G, 15; etc.); "en Datter baade unng og snild" (28, 1); 'datter weenn (30A, 1); "min kerre datter saa ween" (30A, 41); "daatter hin venne" (30D, 1); "min kerr datter" (32A, 18); "kiere daatter min" (37B, 6); "saa wen daa haffde hand d0tter thuo (46, 1); d0ttre smaa (49A, 12); "aler-kerste datter mynn" (71A, 29); "to dejlige Drittre (95F, 1); "Datter sea rig" (119, 1); "ingen Dotther haffuer ieg der manden-woxen er" (298A, 6); "saa smuck en datter (277C, 17); et passim.
The suitors for these daughters are not worth mentioning unless rich: „Beegle saa dyre" (13A, 1); "saa rige beegle under 0" (31 IA, 5, 6); "rige begle" (366A, 1); et passim.
Having become affianced, the young couple are called Faestemand



and Faestem0: "kerre Faestemand myn" (3A, 5); "kerre Faestem0 min" (ib., 9); "en Faestemand fin" (6C, 4); "saa ween en festem00" (16A, 13); "min kiere Festem0 (16C, 15); "hans kierre festem0" (33A. 30); "min unge Faestemand" (95A, 13, 14); "mangen smuck Faestem0" (136C, 32); et passim.
The next stage is that they are Brud and Brudgom, more attention being devoted to the former than to the latter: "den unge Brud" (IA, 14, 15); "hans unge Brudt" (6A, 14; B, 19); "enn ungge Brud" (16A, 25); "saa h0ffskenn brud" (62, 3); "erlig Brud" (73A, 33); "saa falsk en brud" (73B, 39); "den stallen brud" (82H, 22); "saa bleg en brud" (82F, 49; G, 53; H, 67); "liden Brud" (446A, 3); et passim. "Kaere Brudgom min" (47, 22); "ungenn Brudgom" (16A, 25); "den unge Brudgom" (210B, 16); et passim.
The married couple are called Husbond and Hustru, or Aegteviv; the husband is generally addressed as "Herre", so that the word Husbond does not occur very often in the ballads: "din kierre hoesbond" (480D, 80). Hustru and Aegteviv occur frequently, the latter sometimes in contrast to Slegfredviv: "hans venn Hustru" (24, 5); "kiere H0stru din" (52C, 10); "kiaeriste Hustru din (52D, 17); "min kierre h0stru" (84B, 25); "min venne hostru" (113, 18); "alderkierreste h0struff" (481L, 36); "saa vaen en Viv" (20DEFGH, 1); "en Ridders Viv" (145A, 34); "min Aegteviv" (256, 12); "en kaanstig Viff" (5C, 9); "tho h0ffske Wyffue" (13A, 16); "edel-viff" (49A, 81); "ecte-wiff" (126D, 24); "du eddelig bundens wyff" (52A, 12); "syn wene wyff" (54A, 42); "Ecte-Viff" (73B, 3); "din vene viff" (84G, 22); "min venne viff" (91, 7); "en chresten viff" (128A, 29, 30); "adell-viff" (138A, 66); "sleffre-viff" (49B, 69); "en sleffre-viv" (68C, 37); "sleffreedwyff" (85, 4, 19); "sleffreds-wyff" (138A, 36); et passim.
Widows are worth mentioning when young and rich: "saa ung en Enky" (86A, 30); "mangen yske Encke" (136C, 31); "her stander ieg en encke saa ung" (350, 21); "gieste hand sig en encke, hunn waar baade mectig och rig" (477A, 30); "saa rig en encke" (480A, 155); "saa ung en encke" (483H, 22); "en saa rig enn enncke" (484A, 29); et passim.Occasionally pity is expressed for the poor widow: "fattige Encke" (144F, 22); "mongen fattiig



encke" (172A, 25); "sorrigfuld encke" (393A, 32); "sorgefuld
encke" (ib. B, 25).
Friendship is so highly esteemed that a good friend is as good as a relative: "min fuld-god Ven" (7E, 26); "mynn wenn saa godd" (30A, 29); "en fuldtro ven" (53A, 14); "en fuld-troe ven" (57, 8); "sin kiereste gode wenn" (86F, 8); "kjaere Vennen min" (97B, 8); "fuld-tro wenn" (118, 20); en Ven saa huid (271, H, 21); "Venne kjaer' s0de" (284, 3); "din rige wenner" (419B, 19); et passim.
b. Ranks of Society. The highest rank is occupied by the kings and queens; few kings are indicated by name in the ballads, the term "Dankonning", or "Dannerkonning" being in general use: "Daner Konning" (2C, 17); "Danerkongen faur og fin" (6B, 29); "sellige Koning Seifre" (9B, 8); "dantske konning" (11A, 6, 9); "dannerkoning" (76A, 44, 45); en konge saa god (83B, 10); "unge konge Kaall" (87A, 70); unge Kong Erik (145A, 20, 21), "Suend Estrithsson vaar en Konge saa laerd (115B, 12); denn welldigge forste konng Chrestiann" (174A, 14); Sankt Oluf Konning saa bold" (51, 1); "hin heilige Hogen koning" (Hakon Hakons0n, 142A, 1, 4). Foreign kings are either mentioned with the names of their countries, or just called "heathen king : den norske Konge" (49A, 17); "Opsall koning" (19A, 5); "Islands kong" (30A, 1); "Spannelans-konge" (49B, 52); "Egyptelands konge" (57, 24); "Bieer-kongen" (132A, 25, 26); Spannerkoning" (479A, 5, 6); "hien konning" (26A, 3, 7); "hiendske koning" (70A, 29); "hiensk koning" (71A, 2); "hedens-konge" (71B, 2, 3); "den hedenske konge" (128A, 18, 19). A few kings belonging to the realm of phantasy occur: "den duerigkonge' (37A, 37, 40); "den elfverkonge" (ib., B, 6, 11); "Duergekongen" (34A, 20, 25).
Queens are often indicated as danske Dronning , and receive further epithets such as good, fine, or bold: en Dronning gieff oc fijn" (7H, 52); "en Dronning fin" (18D, 2); "hans Dronning snild" (20D, 31); "den danske droning" (32A, 26); "vor unnge droninng" (33B, 1,2); "danske dronning" (49B, 6, 7); "hans ecte dronning" (75C, 22; 87A, 51); "skj0n Dronning" (94A. 5); "Dronning faver og fin" (94A, 8); "droning god" (126F, 40);



"kier droning min" (126F, 48); "min venne dronning" (128D, 2); et passim.
A prince is simply called a king's son: "konges^n" (63, 7, 8); "konges0n fin" (65A, 14); "konges^nn" (66C, 18, 19).
Courtiers were expected to be good and brave; I gode Hoffmaend" (6B, 9); "en rask Hoffmanndt" (7A, 59); "de danske Hoffmend" (7F, 24); "de raske Hoffmend" (10D, 9); "Danske Hoffmend" (31C, 47; 32C, 4); "alle mine gode hoffmend" (70D, 5); "min Faders staerke Hovmaend" (82M, 23; T, 25); ' thr0due raske hommend" (140B, 15); "XXX iern-klede hoff-mendt" (331A, 6, 7); et passim.
The knight is an esteemed personage, and receives many a flattering epithet: "de raske Riddere" (5C, 1); "fauren Ridder god" (7C, 10; F, 15); "en Ridder saa sterck" (ib., F, 15); "goden Ridder god" (14, 15); "edelig Ridder god" (18C, 40); "Riddere bolde" (18D, 16); "dy edlig rider aff Danemarck" (32A, 22, 23, 30); "den geffueste Ridder" (33A, 13; 52B, 12); "suenske rider fin" (34A, 50); "rider saa ven" (76C, 31); "ryder hin rige" (37A, 5); "rider guode" (39A, 17); "en Ridder saa faur" (39C, 3); "den skj0nne Ridder" (70E, 29, 31); "du eddelig Ridder (52A, 13); "en rider bold" (71A, 2); "chresten rider" (71A, 7, 8); "du stolte Ridder" (64B, 14, 15); "mange deilige Riddere" (58, 40); "Ridder prud" (82H, 1; 118, 3); "Ridder saa fin" (82A, 13); "Ridder faur oc fin" (132C, 16); "rigen Rider" (75A, 8); et passim.
Married people of rank were addressed as "Herre" and "Frue": "eddellig Haare min" (13A, 13, 17); "min aedelig Herre" (20, B, 3); "kierae Herre min" (4B, 7; 27A, 41); "min edelig Herre" (31A, 10); "allerkiaereste Herre min" (42B, 13); "herlig Herre" (126D, 172); "kier Herre min" (127ABC, 2); "en mectig herre" (ib., C, 24); "herre saa ven" (128E, 25); "I gode herrer og fromme" (132B, 15); "naadige herre oc Kong" (135C, 24); et passim. "Min stolte Frue" (3D, 32); "min Frue god" (4C, 35); "min naadige Frue" (83A, 10; B, 8); "Fruer saa bolde" (145HI, 14); "saa h0visk en Frue" (145A, 20); "en gammel Frue og vis" (21B, 4); "Spanilantz frue" (49A, 46, 47); "kiere frue min" (49B, 45); "syn wene frw" (54A, 41); "saa h0ffsk en frw" (78A, 12); "Di danske fruer i dansenn" (841, refrain); "en frwe saa god" (85, 15, 16); "en ffrwe



saa wenn" (86A, 12); "en fruwe saa fin" (86C, 17); "min frue er dannis och dydelig" (128A, 5, 6); "min nadigste fru" (128D, 18); et passim.
The young man and maiden are called "Ungersvend" and "Jomfru", or the latter is occasionaly called "Fr0ken"; "en fuaffuer Ungersvend" (7D, 17, 19); "favren Ungersvend" (46A, 34; 56C, 11); "goden Ungersvend" (238A, 1,4); "foger Ungersvend" (11C, 25)-r "sk0nnen Ungersvend" (46B, 2, 3); "foffuer unger-svendt" (103A, 14); "faurenn ungersuendt" (115A, 11); et passim. The Jomfru is the most inevitable person in Danish balladry: "den stalthe iomfru" (IA, 12); "sk0nne Jomfruer" (2B, 12); "min sk0nne Jomfru" (20A, 25); "de stolte Jomfruer" (20C, 16); "de stalte Jomfruer" (33C, 26); "den sk0nnest Jomfru der maatte paa Jorden gaa" (56CD, 12); "der stolte Jomfru" (27A, 43; 70, 23, 24); "Jomfruer smaa" (121, 1, 2); "Jomfru huid" (44B, 23); "iomfrfru saa ven" (49A, 21); "iunfru blide" (55A, 4, 5); "en Jomfru saa god" (58, 36); "den sky0nest iomfru" (75A, 13); "iumfru saa bold" (77AB, 27); "den staalne Jomfru" (82S, 12); "jomfru fienn" (83B, 27); "I fremmede iomfruer" (87C, 12); "de smaa jomfruer" (101G, 6); "min naadige iomfru" (88B, 12); "en fremmed iomfru" (108B, 6); "huer fattig iomfru" (ib., B, 9); "en uskyldig iomfrue" (ib., F, 22); "en jomfru tr0st" (131B, 12); "den rige iumfru" (138B, 17); "de smaa Jomfruer saa fri og saa fraek" (305Aa, 12); "den adelige Jomfru" (ib., Ab, 10); et passim. "Myn naadige fr0ckenn" (132A, 31); "denne fr0cken fin" (ib., B, 19); "den fr0cken fin" (239A, 34); "en fr0ckenn saa rig" (468A, 1). The word Fr0ken does not erop up till in later ballads.
The warrior is called "Kaempe" or "Helt"; "de Kemper stereke' (3D, 4); "en Kempe saa rig" (5A, 43); "en kyempe saa sterek" (7B, 3); "min geviste kaempe" (IOC, 17); "de kemper fromme" (10F, 17); "gode kiemper" (11A, 28); "den kempe god (11D, 7); "min kemper tro" (ib., 10); "en Kaempe bold og fin" (ib., 44); "mynn s0llige keempe" (13A, 28); "thy sterekedste kieemper" (16A, 17); "Kiemper, som ere saa sneld" (69, 1); 'den svenske Kaempe var jo saa staerk" (119, 34); et passim. Raske hellet (5A, 3); "de staerke Helte" (7, 41); "raskes heldt (8, 1); de Hellede var begge saa haarde" (18D, 24); "saa mangen fri Helled



(5B, 1); "frier Helte" (7A, 1); "thu unger Helt" (7B, 22); "Hellede fromme" (21A, 8); "tho helthe stercke (30C, 18); "mangen sk0n helt" (118, 2); et passim. The word "AEdeling" is used occasionally: "to saa stolt edeling" (5A, 21); "den AEdeling god" (132C, 17); "de unge AEdlinge" (133B, 21); et passim.
The word "Svend" by itself indicates the young squire in his various functions, but can also indicate a lower order of servingman: "Siffuert Snarenn- suennd" (2A, 9, 14); "Siver Snarensvend" (3E, 5); "I unge Svende" (6B, 8); "en welbiurdig Svend" (7E, 22); "dannesvende" (10B, 3); "den gieffueste Svend" (23B, 33); "f0lgesuend" (54A, 4); "panszer-swene" (67A, 2, 5); "fremede suenne" (72B, 22); "dannesuenne" (74B, 1); "f0lge-suenne" (79A, 3); "ki0rre-suendt" (84B, 16); "jomffru-suendt" (112A, 16); "welbyrdige suenne" (118, 23); "saa rig en suend" (123, 2); "brude-suenne" (124, 17, 25); "taffuel-suenne" (128F, 8); "drukne suende och karle" (129D, 3); "en ypperlig Svend" (132D, 16); "ki0rresvend" (37A, 16); "kieelder-suend" (299A, 21); "tro F0lgesvend" (438A, 1, 2); et passim.
The word "Dreng" car be used in a wide sense, from hero to stable boy; "raske Drenge" (4B, 16); "en Staldtdreng" (7B, 20); "raske Hoffdrenge" (21B, 9); "faffueren liden Dreng" (24, 3); "thu selliige dreng" (41B, 6); "di elffue-drenge" (46B, 11); "en liden Hoffdreng" (120, 1); "en Hestedreng" (126AB, 4); "en liden Messedreng" (151AB, 4); "Kocke-dreng" (157, 36, 37); "en fattig Muncke-dreng" (180E, 6); "du lille Stalddreng" (186G, 3); ' den fule Bondedreng" (370C, 3); "hyrde-dreng" (371A, 7); "der liegte de dyre Drenge" (326, refrain); et passim. The "little page" of English Scottish ballads finds his counterpart in the "liden Smaadreng": "den liden Smaadreng" (20A, 4, 9; 34A, 5; 36B, 4, 5; 40A, 18; 53B, 8; 54A, 37; 70A, 32; 84B, 40; et passim); "liden kiaeriste Smaadreng" (45L, 7); "Marstigs liden Smaadreng" (145A, 5); "goeden liden Smaadreng" (70D, 18, 20); "den raske Smaadreng" (136C, 12); "kaere Smaadreng min" (297A, 33).
The terms "Mand" and "M0", include many classes, from nobleman to serving-man, from highborn maiden to serving-girl; the expression "aerlige Mand" means nobleman: "en christen Mand ' (1AB, 12); "hver aerlig Mand" (3D, 35); "tre saa modig
7



mend" (5A, 22); "tho saa aerlige Mend" (5B, 11, 15); "saa from en Mand" (5B, 21); "en saa welbyrdig Mand" (9G, 20); "en saa duelig Mand" (16C, 16); "en ufrest Mand" (20F, 30); "kj0d aff chrestenn mand" (30A, 24; B, 11); myn guode mand (32A, 53, 54); "saa wiss en Mand" (42A, 9; B, 11); "mangen erlig mand" (49A, 1); "en bierge-mand" (49B, 55); "en gudfrygtig mand" (50A, 48, 49); "en deylig mand" (68C, 24); alle mine guode mend" (70B, 6); "mand saa braad" (72A, 11, 12); "syndige mandt" (75AB, 4); "saa dannis en mand" (86D, 27); "en fattig skibbroden Mand"' (88A, 10); "den kristen Mand" (94A, 20); "en gudelig Mand" (100B, 6, 7); "den rige Mand" (105, 1, 2, 3, 4); "huer danemand" (108A, 12); "tingemend" (108BE, 11); "den menige Mand" (119, 20, 21); "Kongens gjaeveste Mand" (ib., 65); "welbiurdige Mand" (121C, 32); "elskovens mand" (126A, 20; B, 21); "alle mine brudmennd" (277C, 13); "thienner-mend" (276A, 4); "to raedelige mand (386, refrain); en elskous mand (432C, 4); "fridl0ss mend" (135A, 20); "flyctig mand ey mister sit Mod" (136C, 34); "Niels Ebiss0n, du est en konnstiig mand, och therthill est thu from" (156A, 9); "du erst en lystig mand, der-thil erst du klog" (ib., B, 8); "en fattig fredlds mand" (249C, 9, 10); "spedalsk-mannd" (472A, 29); "saa mandellig en mand" (478, 1 ); "enn mand saa tr0st" (481D, 17, 34); enn mand saa haard (ib., L, 49); et passim. "En saa vaenen M0 (3E, refrain); saa ween en M0" (4A, 1); "den venne Maar" (4C, 41, 42); "hans venne Maar" (6A, 9); "den unge Maar" (6B, 20); "al sin Sk0nne M0er" (20B, 49); "en saa sk0nen M00" (23A, 6); "den wise M0" (27A, 4, 37); "ellerm00" (45, 29); "den venne m0e" (34A, 36); "en hediske M0" (49B, 29); "erlig M00" (73A, 34); "m00 saa prud" (75C, 1); "h0uiske m0er" (76B, 38); "saa liden en mord" (77A, 4); "thienniste-m0e' (79B, 9); god M0 (8lA, 3); din staalen M0" (82D, 17); "fuldgod M0" (82B, 53; D, 49); "saa ven en M0e" (84F, 1); "den edlig klarre M0" (87A, 21); saa ung en Maard" (ib., 65); "saa wen en M0" (89A, 1); "saa dejlig en M0" (101G, 1); "saa vaen en Maar" (104B, 9); "en uskyldig M0e" (108F, 23); "tienniste maar" (126D, 75); "sleffred-mord" (130A. 54); "vore Skjoldm0er" (137B, 24); tieniste-m0 (138A, 64, 65). "mangen fattig m0" (139AB, 2); saa voksen en Maar (239, 22),



"Herre Gud bedre mig fattige M0" (238A, 18); "to saa rige faderl0se M0er" (293A, 9); et passim.
The words "Kvinde" and "Kone" were likewise applied to a multitude of ranks: "en kunstig Quinde" (5B, 6); "tho h0ffske quinde" (13A, 16); "throll-quinder" (18A, 40); "Spaakvinde" (20A, 4, 5); "M0rr och h0ffskenn quinde" (20C, 12); "M0er og gode Kvinde" (20F, 13); "den wenne quinde" (26A, 10); "de h0ffuiske quinder" (35A, 10); "hedenske quinde" (71E, 16); "ellffue-quinnde" (46A, 13, 14); "en Ellekvinde fael og grum" (46F, 3); "goden spaa-quinde" (49A, 22); "m0 eller h0ffuiske quinde" (ib., 34); "de bierge-kuinde" (49A, 70); "du vise Quinde" (52D, 34); "en kuine saa fiin" (86B, 7); "fembtann welbyrdige quinder" (87B, 27); "slegfred-quinde" (87C, 46); "troldquinder" (88B, 1); "Vor Herre hans Tjenestekvinde" (95, 4); "en kundige quinde" (115B, 2); "den undde quinde" (126A, 88); "n0gle~ quind" (127A, 41); "vaabenl0sz Qvinde" (144F, 27); "en fattig quinde" (156A, 34); "en blysom Quinde" (156F, 44); "Kongens Frillekvind" (186A, 9, 10); "l0nnequinder" (290A, 10); "Huskvinde" (360E, 10, 11); "Spaaquinder" (445B, 7, 8); "fruer oc smucke quinder" (481K, 27); "ellekone" (45, 2, 5); "dannekone" (126B, 69); "spaa-koene" (49A, 20); "bondekone" (139A, 12); "den Krokone med sin falske Pot" (101B, 21); "en Hyrdekone" (427A, 11, 12); et passim.
The outlaw is a "fredl0s" or an "ufrest" mann; "en fredl0s Mand" (100, 101); "ufrest Mand" (117, 2); "friddl0ss mend" (135A, 20); "fredl0ss mand" (142A, 21); "fred-l0ss mand" (145A,
38); "fattig fredl0s Mand" (249C; 9, 10); "s0lle fredl0s Mand" (ib., D, 15); et passim.
The bondsman, "Bonden", appeare in various röles in the ballads, and with varying, epithets; on the whole he is represented as good: "du godenn Bonde" (52B, 13); "goden Bonde til Lise" (132C,
39); "goeden Bonde" (314D, 17); "wi fattige Bönder" (145, 30); "mine egne Binder" (162B, 8); "saa rige Binder i By" (193B, 4);
den dristige Bonde" (314C, 13); "min faderss-bonde" (318B, 10).
Prisoners are mentioned several times as "rich", fron which one might conclude that only rich people were morth taking prisoner, on account of the ransom: "dy rigge. fanger" (186AD, 7); "saa



riigiir en fange" (ib., C, 7); "saa riger en Fange" (383AB, refrain); we have also "en fattig Fange" (30A, 21) and "en arme Fange" (ib., B, 7), but here poor can mean pitiable.
Gypsies only occur in one ballad: "en slet Tander" (369B, 4); "du usseleTander" (ib., 8).
c. Professions. There is not much mention of professions, the balladist preferring to move in high circles. There is, however, mention of the porter, the messenger, various serving.boys, servinggirls, the ferry-man, the miller, the coachman, the smith, and the thief: "goden Portener" (77AB, 28); "guode puortener" (138B, 15, 19); "lidenn portepgie" (ib., I, 11); "goede porttener" (ib., K, 21); "goden Portener" (180B, 16); "gode portener" (289E, 14); "saenningebud" (258A, 10); "sendige-bud" (480C, 26); "en Hestedreng" (126AB, 4); "Kockedreng" (157, 36, 37); "hyrde-dreng" (371A, 7); "du gode Terne" (20D, 18); "I gode Thernne" (135B, 16); "denn forbandede Taerne" (20A, 41); "den gamle thiernne" (20B, 40); "den lede terme" (20F, 16; G, 39); "en liden terne" (100A, 1); "din ringeste terne" (249E, 17); "den slemme Taerne" (305E, 3); "goden Ferimand" (5A, 13); "den sellige Ferrimand" (ib., 16); "du goden Faargekarl" (ib., C, 4); "den wsselige Fergemand" (ib., 6); "guoden M0ller" (31A, 7); "Kj0resvende" (84C, 6, 7); "ki0rre~svend" (137A, 16); "en Smedt vel sk0n" (7B, 15); "saa mange gode smede" (139B, 7); "Guldsmedens Datter" (245A, 1, 23); "Hestetyv" (126D, 5; E, 4).
5. Emotions. For the emotion of love, four words with different shades of meaning occur in Danish ballads: "Kaerlighed"; "Elskov"; "Attraa" and "Vilje": "Kaerlighed var saa starrk" (20E, 57); "stoer kierlighed" (306G, 4); "der Elskov havde vaeret saa staerk" (20F, 52); "aldrig h0rde mand feyre elskouffuen" (155B, 28); "aldrig h0rte mand feiere elskou" (21 IA, 8); "rett aldrig h0rde mand fier elskuoff" (212, 5); "aldrig h0rde mand feyere elskowen" (285C, 20); "med aedelig Elskov" (338A, refrain); "elskoen stercke" (475A, 99); "guod elskouug" (432D, 26); "aldrig ingen slig elskoug mindes, sidenn Tistram och Isald d0de" (ib., 27); saa stor atraae" (68C, 7); "y langen athraa" (70B, 22, 23); "saa stor en Attraa" (306IMNO, 2); "ederss lange attra" (332D, 31);



"elskouffuens attraa" (336A, 17, 19); "lanngenn athraa" (448A, 1); "saa stor atraa" (476A, 84); "effter beggis woris fuld-guod wille" (291A, 11); "god Villi" (301. 1); "godvilje din" (308, 6); "willien war saa haard" (313C, 3); "guodt villie" (332F, 1); "saa gi0r oc saa god Villie" (481Q, refrain).
Joy and happiness are expressed by the words "Glaede" and "Gammen": "en feyrre Gammen" (390A, 17); "stuor gamell" (66A. 33); "gaatt gamell" (194A, 28); "guod gammen" (ib., B, 17); "der var glede och halff st0rre gammen" (275, 22); "Tther wor glede och halleff st0rr gaamell" (276A, 56); "der war glede och halle mere gammen" (ib., B, 48); et passim.
There is, however, far more mention of sorrow than of joy; "Harm, N0d, Sorg, Ynk, Taarer" (anger, need, sorrow, grief, tears) occur in the majority of the Folkeviser: "fuldstor Harm" (33C, 6); "ud af ret Harm" (121, 15); "et starre harum" (75C, 24); "udav stor Harm" (82A, 41); "0nk och halle st0r Harum" (83D, 41); "der blev stor N0d, der blev stor Harm" (84C, 17); "hans st0rste harum" (85, 17, 18); "aff stuor harmb" (86C, 30); "den daglige harm" (ib., A, 11); "hindis st0rste harm" (87B, 23); "stor harm" (127C, 8); "m0gen harm" (138A, 39); "stoer harm" 252D, 41); et passim. "Stor N0d" (136C, 29); "saa megen stor N0d"; "stuor N0d" (190, 10); "aff stor N0d" (299C, 26); "udi stor Havsn0d" (306P, 12); "min store N0ed" (276B, 22); "udaff saa m0gen N0d" (354B, 28); "saa hord en N0d" (464B, 9); et passim. "Stuor Sorrig och quid" (4A, 45); "huad sorigen du est tung" (37A, refrain); "en sorig saa stoer" (49A, 58); "min l0nlig sorrig"(53B, 11; 57, 7);"en l0nlig sorig" (75B, 1); "sorigen er tung" (83C, refrain); "hiertte-sorigen" (83C, 7, 8); "stor sorrig i sinde" (87B, 27); "stor Sorg" (89D, 5); "then l0nlig sorrig" (113, 11); "daglig sorig" (138A, 42); "enn l0nnlig sorrig" (144B, 1); "elskoffuens boend och sorig saa thung" (220C, 25); "hiertelig sorig" (221B, 2); "Sorgen er tung" (286C, refrain); "Herre Gud hvor Sorgen den er tung" (305, refrain); et passim. "Den daglige ynck" (86B, 13; C, 24); "saa m0genn stuor ynnck" (ib., L. 23); "stor Ynk" (136A, 1); "en stor Ynk" (217S, 26; 387C, 19); "stor Ynk' (442D, 19); et passim. "Saa modige thare" (20A, 59; I, 73); "saa modig Taar" (33A, 16; B, 24); "dy blodige thaare" (77A, 17);



"saa muodige tharre" (72A, 21, 22); "saa muodige thaare" (77AB, 26); "saa modige tore" (86F, 19); "med modige taare" (89B, 6); "saa stride de rand hind thaar paa kiend" (111A, 33); "saa moedige thaare" (126A, 110; B, 114); "med graedendis thaare" (ib., D. 141); "den ynkelig Graad" (182A, 20); "saa maadige thaar" (218A, 31); "taare saa stride" (220D, 60); "saa stride rinder taarenn aff jomfruens kind, som hagel hand falde meest" (475A, 109); et passim.
The condition of the mind; "Hu" or "Mod" is often described: "i din Hu saa haard" (25, 22); "i din Hu saa tr0st" (ib., 23); "af fuldguod Huff" (7B, 5); "din Hu gi0ris mod" (90A, 17); "din Hu er glad" (ib., 19); "i Huen saa gram" (145A, 11); "i Huen saa ve" (ib., 58, 60); "din hue er i-saa moed" (275, 3); "sorig-fu!d huff" (393A, 6); "such og s0rgefull hue" (307C, 31); "hans hu er sorrygfuld" (481B, 1); et passim. "Ved saa frit et Mod' (17, 11; 119, 46); "met saa fritt itt mod" (37A, 13); "med et sorrigfuldt Mod" (38D, 34); "med stor Hoffmod" (39B, 2); "aff fri Mod" (51, 4); "med sorrig-fuld Mod" (126B, 103); "saa ynkelig Mod (ib., D. 170); "saa godt et Mod" (144G, 23); "Suk og sorrigfuld Mod" (144G, 23); "saa svagt et Mod" (175D, 15); "hyndis m0gen hoffmod" (363A, 8); et passim.
Luck or fate is often indicated as the cause of happiness or unhappiness: "lykken var dem mild" (20D, 20); "saa krank var Lykken min" (33C, 29); "den krankeste Lykke' (89G, 18); "min Lykke har vaeret saa haard" (126E, 106); "l0ckenn god' (293A, 22); "saa gode l0cke" (ib., 35); "denn ustadige l0cke" (475AB, 2); "lycken var denom saa tunge" (485, 3); et passim. "Saa krancken Skeebbenn" (13A, 4); "saa ynckelig en Skeebne" (20G, 60); "skieeben saa blidde" (56AB, 6); "saa krank en Skaebne' (140G, 12); "saa kranke Skeben" (146C, 1); "skiebben saa tunge" (354B,
1); et passim.
The hour of good or bad fortune is often mentioned: Tiden gi^ris mig saa lang" (37A, refrain); "udi saa und en thyd" (302A,
2); "saa kranck en thid" (ib., B, 2); 'i saa und en thid' (ib., C, 2); "i krancken Stunde" (62, 45, 48); "kranckenn stunde' (85, 1,2); "saa kranck en stund' (190, 1); "allt y saa unth enn stund (303A, 11); "udi saa krankenn stund" (ib., B, 14); 'i krancken Stund



(31 IA, 12, 13); "udi saa unden Stund" (312A, 12); "den sorrigfuld stundt" (33C, 8); et passim.
6. Actions. The action of looking over the shoulder occurs accasionally in the Folkeviser, but whether it is the left or the right shouder is not added: "Stalt Magret sig offuer axllen saa (201A, 11); "hun sig offuer axsel saae" (240B, 10); "Hand lette under hans axeler smaa" (294D, 17); et passim. Of far more frequent occurrence is the action of shoudering one s scarlet cloak, "at axle Skind" (19AB, 5; 20A, 9; 26A, 25; 27A. 9; 32AB, 9; 33B, 12; 34A, 58; 49A, 4; 70A, 29; 71AB, 11; 72A, 36; et passim).
The English ballad action of tirling at the pin only occurs in two Folkeviser; "riste de i denn ring" (289C, 12); "raster udi den ring' (290B, 7).
The writing of letters is quite frequent, especially of secret letters, "L^nnebreve": "l0nne-breff" (77A, 45; 128F, 15; 140A. 13); "l0nnebrefue" (77B, 45); "l0ne~breff" (88A, 3; 159A, 16; 166A, 1, 2); de L0nnebrev" (119, 7); "l0nnebref (163A, 18); "bryllops-breff (220A, 129); "fiede-breff (298C, 26); ledingebreffue" (445B, 3); "sende-breff" (475A, 37); et passim.
Sitting and speaking across a broad table, or jumping over this broad table in moments of excitement, is frequently mentioned: "sprang offuer det brede Bordt" (7A, 3); "over bredit bord" (11C, 5); "offuer sit breede Bord (23B, 1); "breden Bord (32C, 6); et passim. Cp. Ch. 66 b 17; "He dung the boord up wi his fit."
The giving of a good answer is mentioned several times: ansuar god" (132BC, 12); "gode andtsvar" (123AB, 6); ansuar god (430E, 14); "et gott ansuar" (431B, 6, 7); et passim.
Much attention is paid to the manner of speaking, whether with fair words, freely spoken words, manly words, words of hate, etc.: "faure Ord" (4C, 42, 43); "et skemtsomt Ord" (6C, 2); "ec Ordt saa fri" (7A, 2, 4); "itt mandoms ordt" (ib., 3, 81; 11D, 13); "dy stuore ordt" (7A, 80); ' dine store Ord" (llC, 23); anttsuarord" (27A, 10; B, 4); "skiemptis-ord" (40D, 1); "et sorrigfuldtt Ordde" (46A, 37); "guodde Ord" (52A, 6); "saa manget gammelt Ord" (54B, 1); "haadding-ord" (67B, 6); "mangtt ett skeempttens ord" (73A, 1); "kunstelig Ord" (74A, 7); "haedings-ord" (87B.



45); "fore ord'' (89A, refrain); "favre ord" (ib., B, refrains); "uh^ffsk ord" (91, 12, 13); "itt ord saa stort" (112A, 11); "thi spotzke ord" (112A, 17); "skiemtt-fulds ord" (122, 1); "hadings ord" (127A, 47); "mangt et gammens Ord" (128D, 1); "Gud og hans heilige Ord" (183G, 17); hindis snilde Ord" (184B, 19); "saa mangtt itth udueligtt ordt" (195A, 9); "saa mangt it skiemtis ord" (197B, 1); "sligt kongelig ord" (237A, 21) "Spotskordene" (31 IK, 3); "fortallelsis-ord" (313C, 12); "itt broders-ord" (415A, 18, 19); "itt siellsoms-ord" (428B, 10); "thi ord, thi klenger som harpeleg, der gange udaff hans mund" (452A, 7); "fromme ord" (480B, 34); "tuctige ord" (660B, 43); et passim.
Sometimes the word speech, "Tale", is used insted of "Ord": "med fauffren Tale" (67C, 7, 8); "min kunstelig thaalle" (74A, 8); "ynckelige talie" (84G, 12); "taaie saa lang" (86A, 7); "fruer talie" (126A, 50); "Ord oc bliden Tale" (137AB, 8); "han haver en Ormetunge" (164, 11); "saa falsken en Tal"' (229D, 1); "det pleyer ingen dannequinde, at gijzSre sin tale saa lang" (289E, 23). "Krist, om jeg vidste den Tale var sand" (271X, 23); "hans tale den er slett" (306F, 7); "deris talie er falsk' (ib., G, 7); "Ungersvends l0se Tale" (440B, 21).
The giving of presents to sweetheart, bride, or friends is a custom described fairly frequently: "feestind-gauffue" (3A, 6); "Vennegaffue" (5C, 7); "Morgengaffue" (133AB, 9); "Morgensgaffue" (139AB, 1); "festengaffue" (140A, 7); "din gode Gave" (140B, 23); "rige gaffuer" (ib., D, 17, 18); "morgen-gaffue" (247A, 23); "Morgengave" (283, 16); "siaelegaffue" (328, 10); "Siaelegav"' (31 IB, 7); "Velgaver" (311D, 27); ét passim.
There is mention in 3 variants of one balled of having a good seat in riding: "sk0n haffuer hand rider-gang" (452A, 5; B, 4; D, 4); "hand haffuer rett riders ganng" (ib., C, 5); "och hannd haffuer rider-gang" (ib., F, 5).
Journeys other than pilgrimages occur, such a bridal journeys and journeys to attend parliament: "bleff min brude-ferd saa lanngh" (277B, 10); "I fik en Ufaerd" (ib., F, 35); "en ynckelig Ferd" (299C, 48); "en underlig faer" (354, 21); "paa herre-ferd" (376A, 2); "end ynckelig ferd" (393A, 27); "brude-ferd" (478, 70); "herreferdt" (479C, 25); "enn stacket rexe er snarlig ennd"



(480A, 38, 39); "saa stercke arre-ferd" (489A, 2); "saa lvstelig en harpe-ferd" (ib., B, 2); "saa sterck en herre-ferdt" (ib., C, 2, 3); et passim.
Quarrels, war, and strife get their share of attention: "saa ynckelig en Kiff" (5A, 41; 9D, 1, 2); "denne Hadings kiff" (10G, 17); "en Hadings-kiff" (20A, 1); "en 0nckelig kiff" (29C, 7); "den blodige Krig" (416Cd, 9); "en saa blodigen Krig" (ib., Cg,
6); "fuld stor en Strid" (17B, 16); "saa stuor en strid" (355B, 5); et passim.
Murders are generally described as pitiful: "ynkelig": "saa ynckeligt et Mord" (20F, 58); "det ynckelig Mord" (ib., E, 56); "aldrig h0rde jeg et slemmere Mordt" (21A, 4; B, 5); "saa ynkeligtt ett moord" (54A, 36); "mandemord" (63, 20); "quinde-mord" (76F, 2, 3); "det ynckelige Mordt" (118, 22); "saa stort et Mandemord" (136A, 8); "ded 0nckeligste moer" (149A, 24, 25); "saa stort et mord" (189A, 32; B, 27); "Mandemord" (362D, 43); et passim.
Dying in battle is generally called: receiving the death-wound: "fik uliffssaar" (19A, 19; C, 4); "bane-sarrd" (83A, 26); "bannesaar' (112C, 16); "dybbe wunder och blodig saar" (114A, 14); "dybe saar" (ib., 42, 43); "baane-saar" (120, 25); "d^delig saar" (325C, 13); et passim.
Good and bad advice is given: "med falske Raad" (95E, 6; 342B, 7); "med onde Raad" (95F, 7); "saa ont et Raad" (178D,
7); "mett deris falske raade" (202, 6, 7); "guode rad" (260A, 2); for-krobenn raad" (394A, 15); "du est min h0igeste raad" (414C,
2); "du est min n0igelig raad" (ib., D, 2); et passim.
7. Appearance. The expression of the face is denoted by mentioning rosy or pale cheeks: "rosenskynnd" (4A, 17; C, 30); "ved hviden Kind" (13A, 35; 18A, 12; 22A, 10; 23A, 25; 30A, 9; 34A, 18; 37C, 31; 40D, 2; 46A, 15; 54A, 4; 56C, 15; etc.); "rosenskyend (27A, 14; 46A, 35; 86C, 12; etc.); "dine faffuere kind" (37A, 33); "kinden bleg" (46B, 17); "blege kind" (54B, 20); "rosensen-kynd" (62, 55); "wed huiden kind" (71A, 29); "paa huiden kinde" (75A, 9; B, 7); "saa bleg en kind" (82C, 44; D, 49; H. 66; M, 33; N, 30, P, 32); "rossen-kiender och r0de" (86K, 25); kinder r0d" (89B, 22); "min faffre kind" (127A, 41; B, 35); "de



samme kiender, som ware f0r r0ede, di vare suortte som iord (135B, 17); "med snehviden kind" (305Eg, 18); "fauffre kinder dinne" (274A, 3, 4); et passim.
Next in importance are the eyes: "saa djaerve 0jne" (20C, 19; I, 27); "0jne haffde hand som it brendende Baal" (51, 7); hanns Pgenn er liuse som morgen-stiern" (2B, 4); "hans 0yen vaar liuse som klaren Stierne" (2C. 4); "0gen hvide" (10E, 7); "hans 0gen wor taare-fuld" (87A, 49); "de 0jne de vare saa frydefuld" (104B. 6); "hendes 0jne var taarefulde" (135C, 4); "hendes 0jne var blodige r0de" (135A, 19; C, 28); "hans £)yne blaa" (144F, 17); "ederss 0yen blanche" (220B, 83); "du har 0jne, som man taender op Ljus" (253A, 8); "dine 0jne saa blaa" (294A, 12); "hans 0gen saa klar" (262A, 11); "med vrede 0jne" (305Aa, 5); "med lyse 0ggenn och klarre" (489D, 18); "to £>jne, var bittelige smaa, de tindrede som Stjaernerne paa Himlen" (458G, 12); et passim.
The mouth also receives some share of attention: Mund saa r0d" (76A, 32); "Mund saa hvid" (ib. C, 10, 18); "du hold din fule mund" (258D, 18); din Rosens-Mund (357A, 24; 362C, 15), "hannem saa kallet hun slupper-mund" (367A, 4); "hindis muns wor r0d som en robynn" (378B, 18); muond saa r0d (419A, 17); "Mund haffuer hun som rossen r0ed" (474A, 30); titt leer sorgefuld mund" (475A, 84. C, 83); "titt smiller sorgefuld mund" (ib., B, 85); et passim.
The words for hair and locks are mentioned in profusion: "deres gule Haar" (3E, 3); "fagre Guldhaar" (13B, 14); "hendas haardt skinner som spunden Guld (22A, 8); hans favre Haar (33B, 24); "hans ski0nne haar" (ib. E, 22); "hans lange graa haar" (34A, 63); "hans Haar var som det pureste Guld" (38A, 16); med udslagen haar" (39A, 1); "som Guld da skinner hans deilige Haar" (50A, 12); "hans Haar det skinner som idell Guld" (ib. B, 5, 6); "sit favre Haar (56CD, 15); haard som spunden Guld (77A, 31); "silkeflettet Haar" (82D, 19); "mit gule Haar" (83G, 14); "hendis faure Haar" (87C, 18); udslaget Haar (95A, 7); det gullokkede Haar" (95E, 15); "Haar som spunden af Guld" (104B, 6); "kruset Haar" (115B, 19); "mit fuorre haar" (126G, 65); "sit lange Haar, det var som gulisten Vox" (144F, 21); "hans Haar det skinner som Vox (ib. G, 20); hun haffde haard, som guld wor



thrend" (201B, 15); "bërster hendis faure haar" (212B, 8); "med kruset haar" (220A, 34); "hun reder sit favrgule Haar" (305E, 1); "hvilcken feirste Haar der aatte" (311Ab, 3, 4); "med omskaaren Haar" (2671, 2); "och krusett da wor hans haar" (279A, 16); "med guld offuer kruset haar" (332L, 17); "hanns haar slo paa hans haeste-laend" (333A, 11); "du est skidden om din 0yen, och kulstu er din haar" (388A, 6); "hans haar thett neder paa axelen stod, thett skiener som raderen guld" (395A, 17); "hun börster hindis huide haar" (456B, 9); et passim. "Y gullen Lock" (4A, 37, 47); "hans gulle lock" (45, 11); "en gullen Lock" (54C, 13); "hendes gule Lok" (95C, 9); "hindis foure Lock" (108B, 10); "guldbundne Lok" (109B, 15); "gulle Lokke' (156A, 57); "med kruset Lok" (220A, 3; B, 4); "fagergule Lok" (311Db, 16); et passim. A few beards are mentioned: 'Skaeg haffde hand som r0dt Heste-Man, Slog neder til hans Knae" (51, 6), det r0de Skaeg" (50A, 40, 41; C, 13, 14); "lang graa Skaeg och haar" (34B, 58); "hans Skjaeg og det var graat" (305Ab, 7; Ae, 6); "Skjaeg som et Jomfruhaar" (ib. D, 5).
The neck and neck-bone are described as being white or hard, a hard neck being sometimes used symbolically for a fighter: "hanns hals er hord som blankenn iern" (3C, 6); "hanns hals den er som den haardeste iern" (ib. E, 10); "min huide Hals" (5A, 34; 34A, 55); "om hviden Hals" (6Af 14); "mit huide Halsbeen (77A, 66); "imod hyggeste Hals" (11B, 7); "saa haar en Hals" (20A, 47B, 34); "hendes Hals var hvid som Hermelin" (23A, 12); "saa haar en Hals" (83B, 16); "mit huide hals-bien" (224AB, 4); "eders huide hals, som er saa faffuerlige huid" (419E, 19); "saa haard en Vovhals" (422B, 11); et passim.
Arms are often mentioned in connexion with sleeping: sleeping in his or her white arm: "i min hvide Arm" (56B, 21); CD, 17);
paa min hvide Arm" (145CDE, 6); "udi edres hvide Arm" (ib. A, 36); "dim huide arum" (226AE, 12; C, 14); "i din huide arm" (289G, 26); et passim.
White hands are mentioned almost as often as golden hair: "hans hennder di vorre modelige huide" (2A, 4); "din hvide Haand" (3E, 16); "sin hvide hand" (40A, 17); "hans hender saa huide" (49A, 49); "hendes Haender hvide" (58, 9); "ved hviden Haand" (83A,



37); "hvide Hand" (117, 8); "Haender og F0dder saa smaa" (104B, 7); "sin lyse Haand" (132D, 55); "hanns huide haandt, den var saa gull som vox" (144A, 25); "riderens haarde haand" (183C, 18); "med bl0deren haand" (271B, 47); "Icke saa will ieg dantze hoss dig, din hinnde dig er saa horde" (372A, 6); "hendes Haender var rnuresten hvid" (477C, 14); et passim.
Fingers are described as small, or fine; "med liden smaa Fingre och leettee" (20C, 5; H, 7); "fuorlig haffde hun finger och smaa" (45, 9, 10); "fenger smaa" (72A, 69, 70); "finger smaa" (76A, 20, 29); "liden smaa finngre och leetthe" (80A, 6); "de fingre saa smaa" (94B, 14); "Fingre hin snare" (146C, 26, 27); 'Fing eren fin" (175C, 8); "dine Fingre smaa" (186H, 12); et passim.
Nails are mentioned occasionally; several times the expression: blood sprang out of the nail roots, is used to denote great fatigue or exertion: "Negler haffde hand som Buckehorn" (51, 7); "blodet sprack udaff negle-roed" (IOC, 39); "dett blod sprack ud aff nagelle-rodt" (75A, 9; B, 7); "blodeth sprack udaff negle-rod (274B, 23, 24); "Blodet det sprak fra Neglerod" (389H, 14).
Descriptions of armour are frequent; the coat of mail is worn by all ballad warriors: "din Brynje blaa" (3E, 14); "mit gode Svaerd og aedle Brynje" (ib., 15); "min Bryne god" (5B, 22); "haarde Bryne min" (ib., 30); "Brynnie blaa" (6A, 2); "sin brinne saa ny" (7C, 38); "br0ne hin tunge" (9A, 16; 26A, 2); "bryning hind dyre" (10c, 25); "brynen saa tunge" (14, 3, 4); "i Brinnier haard' (20G, 41, 42); "min bryne altt saa god' (30A, 28); "dend beste brönie" (49A, 8); "bryne thunge" (75C, 6) "brynie saa smaa (82E, 12, 13); "Brynje r0d" (82H, 42); "br0nie blaa" (138C, 13): et passim. Once: "harnisk blaa" (188, 9).
The most important weapon is the sword: "thett guode Suerdt" (3A, 13, 14); "min gode Svaerd" (5A, 31, 41); "saa godt et Sver" (9ABC, 9); "den gode Svaerd" (10F, 24; 11B, 34); "sin guode suerd" (16A, 17; 29C, 6); "din guode suerdt" (18A, 11; 19C, 3); "thinn gylte suerd" (18C, 10); det haarde suerd" (18D, 12); 'mit sverd aff guld" (20H, 33, 34); "mit Suerd aff ny" (20D, 30); "Svaerden er hvasse" (19A, 13); "hans blanche Svaerd (201, 55); "min Suerd saa god" (30B, 13); "det dyrebare Svaerd" (48A, 8); "sit skarpeste Svaerd" (ib. B, 8); "s0lff-bunden suerd" (49A, 56);



"sinn dragen suerd" (54A, 43); "mit r0de guldysuerd" (ib. B, 4); "saa skarptt itt suerd" (56F, 4, 5); "et lidet Svaerd" (58, 26); "suerditt, er harditt y drage-blod" (70A, 15); "det goede suerd, som mand kalder Adelring" (70C, 14); "et Suerd af Guld" (ib. E, 14); "sit blodige Svaerd" (82L, 22; P, 24); "it gammelt Svaerd" (114B, 19); "s0lffbundet Svaerd" (120, 29); "dragen suerde" (131C, 15); "sit eget blanke Svaerd" (140G, 10, 11); "mitt forgyllte suerdt" (183A, 14); "ridder-swerde" (ib. D, 10); "mit r0de Guldsvaerd" (ib. F, 8); "sit klingende Svaerd" (306K, 17); "Svaerd saa blaat (415C, 13); "sin blanke skarpe Svaerd" (421G, 25); "sueret, er herd i orme-bloed" (478, 22); et passim.
The bow is not of importance; I only found it mentioned twice: en Staalblue" (86C, 28); "min gode boue" (318A, 9, 14); "min gode bue" (ib. C, 9, 13).
Daggar, "Kaarde", I found once: "hvasse Kaard" (349D, 16). The knife, however, occurs very frequently: "to bheslagen Kniffue" (9A, 10); "tho selffbunden Kniffue" (ib. B, 8; D, 9); "tho forgylte Kniffue (ib. G, 13); "en liden Kniv" (20A, 19; 57, 22); "sin kniff saa huass" (44B, 21); "huasse kniff" (46B, 10); "huassen kniff" (49A, 1); "s0lleff-slaffuen knyff" (54A, 19); "sin s0lvblanke Kniv" (82P, 30); "s0lff~slagenn kniff" (84B, 35); "min s0lffbundne Kniffue" (91, 11, 12); "s0lvbundne Kniv" (95C, 4, 5); "s0lvskafted' Kniv" (95D, 7, 8); "s0lff bundet Kniff" (120, 30); "s0lffbonden kniff (126A, 57); s0lvboen kniv (130D, 33); s0lvbeslagne Kniv (175C, 10); s0lslagen kniff (196, 8); "s0leffbunden knyff" (197A, 24); "forgyldenne knyff" (214A, 16, 17); "de knifue smaa" (215, 8); "en Forskoererkniv" (245A, 6); "et Par S0lvkniv og Gaffel" (245A, 5); "eders skarpe kniff" (289G, 25); et passim.
The word Brand is occasionally used for a sword: "sin brune Brand" (4A, 41; C, 57); "hin brune Brand" (25, 32); "forgyldene Brand (27A, 7); saa blank en Brand (143B, 16); thend brune braand" (244A, 4); "sin brune brandtt" (289B, 6); "sin brune brant" (384B, 16).
Spear and shield complete the list of arms: "vor huasse Spyd" (8, 36); "dett lange sper" (31B, 28); "dit kronet sper" (31C, 35); "med gyldene spiud" (116, 20); "de blancke Spiude" (156A, 51; C, 43; D, 36); "blancke spar" (165, 6; 171A, 15); "blancke Spiud"



(172B, 6; 319A, 12); "met glaffuend och huasse spiude (319A, 11); "mit gylte Spiud" (319C, 9); "mangen kronit sper" (477A, 48). "Sin forgylte Skiold" (5A, 19; 7H, 45); "de forgylte Skiolde" (5C, 15; 10E, 13; 11A, 26); "skiolden r0e" (34A, 38); et passim.
Gilt helmets were worn by the warriors: "en forgylter Hjelm (5C, 23); "min guode Hjelm" (7Aml8; B, 16); "hielem hin r0dt" (10A, 22; B, 27); "kongens gylte hielm" (IOC, 39; G, 52; 26B, 16); "hielmen hin trange" (10D, 22; G. 43); "sin gyldene hielm" (10F, 23; G, 40); "hielm hin r0de" (16C. 7); "derris guode hiellem" (30A, 37); "min forgyldene Hjaem" (82D, 16); "min gyllte hielem" (183A, 13); "Hielman aff r0den Guld" (390A, refrain); et passim.
A horn, "Horn", or "Ljud", is often carried; "med sinne forgyldenne Hornn" (136B, 4; C, 5); "itht dyrebar horn" (37C, 25); "huiden horn" (50A, 20, 21); "hanns forgylte Ljud" (20A, 33); "for-gyldene liidt" . (28, 27); "forgyldene Lue" (69, 5); "gyldene Luy" (73B, 4, 12); "min Fadres forgydene Liud ' (82D, 33; H, 41); "sin forgyldene liud" (88C, 12); forgylltte lud (125B, 14); "min forgyldene Liud" (185, 7); et passim.
Cloaks, indicated as "Kaabe", "Mantel", or "Skind", were in general use: "Kaabe blaa" (6B, 4, 18; 36A, 5); "Kappen saa blaa" (13B, 16); "min Kobe blaa" (20E, 49, 51); "hendes Kappe af Vadmel graa" (22A, 8); "hendes Kaabe aff fl0ffuel blaa" (ib. B, 14); "min Kaabe blaa' (24,2); Kaabben blaa (30A, 19); Kaaben god" (ib. B, 5); "Koben blaa" (ib. C, 9); "Kobe bloe" (37A, 20); "Kobbe blaa" (55A, 24); "hindis Ridekleder thi wor blaa" (75C, 16); "Kappen blaa" (82G, 17); Kaabe r0d (126B, 66; C, 30), et passim. "Sin Mantell, den var aff skarlagen r0d" (20C, 53); "enn mantell blaa" (78A, 8; 353A, 15). "Skarlagen-skind" (IA, 19; B, 12; 3B, 13; 13A, 7; 16A, 23; 20B, 9; 26A, 25; 33B, 12; 34A, 26; 35A, 30; 37A, 51; 75D, 25, etc.); "i siner Skind gr0n" (5A, 25); "I0ff-gr0n skind" (127A, 21); "dine l0ff-gr0nne skind" (138E, 39); "l0ffue-gr0n Skind" (347, 5); et passim. These cloaks were evidently worn by men and women.
Under the cloak came a "Kjortel", often mentioned as worn by pages, but also by women: 'Kiortel r0d (2C, 7); Kiortel grönn (7D, 23); "hendis Kjortel er af Kidskind" (22A, 8); "hendis Kjortel var aff Boocke-skyeend" (ib. B, 14); "Kjortelen r0d" (46C, 24);



"Kjortel blaa' (53B, 10); "kiorttell huidt" (70A, 32); "Kiorthell r0d" (86D, 22); "wor 0uerste kiortell" (88A, 13); "kiorttell gr0nd" (124, 13, 14); "skaarlagens kiortell" (122, 11); "kiortel gr0n" (127A, 20; 131B, 21); "en kiortell ny" (131B, 6); "min gode kiortel" (132D, 25); "ermekiorttell rpdt" (134, 17); "min kiorthell, udskorne y roser och lilier" (160A, 6); "min kiorthell, ud-skorne y brindendis brand" (ib. A, 7); "min Kiorthel r0d, udskorn i brendendis Brand" (ib. B, 17); "en kiortel af blyand" (220A, 33); "en fl0yels kiorttel" (237A, 10); "din Kiortel, og fast om den er graa" (238A, 5); "en guldblommet Kiortel" (2931, 15); "en Kiortel aff Lundiske ny" (314C, 3); "en fl0uels kiortell" (258C, 15); "sin kiortel huide" (ib., 28); "en Silkestoffes Kjortel" (263B, 7, 8); et passim.
Precious belt were worn: "Guldbelltet" (139A, 29); "belte med spange" (215, 5); "beltet var aff deamanter best" (220A, 36); "hendes Guldbaelte" (303D, 12); "hendis r0d Guldbaelte" (259D, 22); "itt guld-beltte langt" (268E, 13).
Ermine is mentioned a good deal, both for wear and to indicate great whiteness: "hvide Hermelin" (94A, 18); "hun waar huid som Hermelin" (20LB, 16); "Drengen i hvide Hermelin" (305Ed, 25); "han hals war huid som hermelin" (279A, 16); et passim.
Shoes and boots are mentioned very often, especially silverbuckled shoes: "Bockeskind-st0fle" (6C, 14); "Sienils s0leff-spendt skuo" (20C, 38, 39); "guld-skuo" (37C, 12); "s0lvspaendte Sko" (ib. G, 15); "et Par guldspende Sko" (38, 20); "de r0de guld-skuo" (40A, 13, 14); "buock-skieends st0ffuelle" (45, 21); "r0de guldskuo" (45, 27); "bukkeskinds-st0vle" (47B, 5, 6); "guldspaendte Sko" (65B, 3, 4); "s0lff-spende skou" (68E, 22); "r0de guld-skuo" (75C, 2); "s0lffspente sko" (84B, 18); "min s0l-spendt Skoe" (ib., 33); "mine Brudesko" (ib. D, 28); "thou solffspendt skoe" (121A, 18); "s0lff-spende sko" (125A, 6); "guldboen Sko" (144G, 27); ' udskaaren skoe" (147B, 1); "Buock-skiens st0ffuel" (207, 7); "liden Kirstens T0fler smaa" (304B, 7); et passim.
Elaborate shirts were worn by both sexes: "hans Skjorte smaa" (20K, 60); "i rigskjortten" (28, 12); "en Silkesaerk" (37G, 14); i silcke-saerk" (45, 16); "en silcke-skiorte saa hvid og fin" (47B, 8); "i Silkesaerk saa r0d" (56A, 17); "silckesyt Saerk" (65B, 12);



"silcke-serck" (71A, 19); "min brude-serck" (84B, 34); "skiorte saa sk0n, och silcke-tr0ie, vaar stucken med guld" (116, 2); "serker smaa" (128F, 25); "synn skiortte sk0n, thr0en war aff sylcke gr0nn" (207, 6); "silkesyde skiorter" (238A, 12, 13); en silckesyet skiorte med guld" (294D, 15); "en silkestukken Saerk" (263B, 4, 5); "i sin skiorte sk0n, oc Silke-Tr0je, vaar herlige gr0n" (317A, 2); "syv silkesyede Skjorter (238A, 12, 13); en Silkesaerk, var 9 Jomfruer deres Haandevaerk" (353A, 10); "min Ligskjorte" (421H, 11); "Hampegarns Saerk" (463, 22); et passim.
Bright sleeves were favoured by the ladies; "Ermit r0dt' (4B, 33); "tho broggitt erme" (32A, 36); "erme r0d" (73A, 35); "AErme r0d" (117, 7); "ieg mine Silcke Erme smaa om S0ndagen haver sn0rd" (135C, 29); "ermet r0ed" (192, 18); "hendis ermer var med r0de guld fest" (220A, 36); "ermitt blaa" (348A, 14); "din' AErmer blaa" (431K, 7); "silcki-ermer" (475A, 24); et passim.
Gloves are always described as small, or so small: sine Handsker smaa" (2C, 6); "syn Handsker smaa" (31A, 22); "siine handskiir smaa" (186C, 11); 'sine Handsker saa smaa (175C, 19); "dine Handsker smaa" (238D, 4); "hendis handsker smaa" (189D, 5); et passim.
A variety of hats and hoods are mentioned: "sin h0je Hat' (82S, 10); "h0je Hat" (100A, 21); "med huigen Hat och rosenskind" (175A, 3); "paa din silcke-hat och paa din silcke-hue" (180G, 15); "eders Fl0jels Hat" (253A, 5, 6); "hatten graa" (254C, 8); "pillegrims-hat oppaa" (479A, 29; B, 33); graa Kolhaetter paa" (145FG, 4); "de syde de silke-huer" (265A, 1); "och ther-till sylcke-huiff" (299A, 5, 6); guld-huen (358, 10); "under silcke-huue" (395B, 16).
A garment for women, called Bliant , occurs in later ballads. "sin Bliant smaa" (120A, 46); Bliant smaa (239A, 49); bliandt
smaa" (307D, 20).
The materials used for clothing are: velvet, silk, sindal, linen, scarlet cloth, homespun, and wool; the colours vary: Fl0yel r0d (20G, 6); "Fl0gel blaa" (20K, 16); "Fl0ffuel blaa" (22B, 14); "fl0iell blaa" (74B, 8); "fl0ffuel blaa" (75C, 14); "silcke och fli0ll af nye" (131A, 5); "fl0ill i-saa gr0nn" (231B, 14); "det fl0ell



blaae" (233D, 15, 16); "fl0yel blaa" (ib. E, 17); "flyell blae" (259E, 34); "fl0uell gr0nn" (307A, 14); et passim. "Silcke r0d" (11B. 34; 49B, 10; 66A, 22; 82B, 5C); "Silcke smaa" (34B, 23; 43, 4, 5; 132A, 7); "Silcke huidt" (70B, 37); "Silcke huide" (77AB, 35); "silche blaa" (84G, 21); "silche saa blaat" (89D, 19); "silche gr0n" (127B, 9); "silche ny" (131C, 37); "silche og sindal r0d" (ib. E, 7); "silche buode brun och blaa" (146A, 17); "i sielche och saa i sindal huid" (200D, 3); "silche gr0nn som l0g" (218B, 6. 7); "sindal saa gr0n som l0ff" (ib. C, 8, 9); "silche och sindell rrfd" (ib. E, 9, 10); "under sorten sindall" (220A, 31); "silche huid" (227A, 8); "silcke smaa" (239B, 34); "silchitt r0d" (252A, 5); "silcke, det vor i-saa r0dt" (290D, 2); "Hanns kleder ware aff sielcke gr0nn" (314D, 38); "silke och dett huide bliant sloe'neder for hestens fod" (394C, 7); "silcke och dett syndall suortt henngde ned for heste-fod" (ib. A, 4); et passim.
Linen is white: "Det hvide Lin" (3E, 19; 20F, 37; 53B, 6; etc.); "den huide liin" (68B,20); "under hviden liin" (73B, 37); "det fineste liin (89G, 15); "i huide liin" (126F, 27); "i huiden lind" (171A, 30); "silche-lind" (183C, 17); "kruset liin" (220AC, 47); "det suorte liin aff sindal smaa" (ib. C, 21); "dett huide dinn" (227A, 13); "det huideste lin" (294A, 4); "under varme Lin" (267U, 8); "min AEermelin at snaere" (284, 1, 2); "Guld i AErmelin" (387F, 7); et passim.
Scarlet cloth is of various colours: "Skarlagen r0d" (11B, 26; 20C, 53; 23A, 16; 24, 9, 10; 68F, 22; 126A, 118; etc.); r0d Skarlagen" (20A, 26; 32B, 15; 62, 10; 68E, 22; 128ABC, 1, 2; 135A, 4; etc.); "Skarlagen smaa" (40A, 32; 23A, 13; 44B, 22; 66A, 23; 20, 26; 130B, 5; 138F, 30; etc.); "det Skarlagen ny" (131B, 5); "min Skarlagen best" (6A, 12); "Skarlagen r0dt" (33B, 13); "Skarlagen blaa" (39B, 19;76B, 12, 13; 89A, 10; 108D, 8); i Skarlaggen r0d" (42B, 17); "Skarlagensklaeder, och thi var gr0nn" (68A, 7); "Skarlagen gr0n" 184G, 9); "Skarlagen huid" (227A, 3); "Skarlagen niu" (231A, 4); et passim.
Homespun is grey: "Vemel graa" (34A, 65; "graa Walmed" (87B, 18); "Vadmel saa graat" (89D, 19); "walmell graatt" (205B, 10); "weimell graa" (234A, 7); "weffmell graa" (290B, 5);



"waamelld graa (ib. C, 4); Vaejmel saa graa (306E, 2); vadtmell graa" (259H, 29); et passim.
"Ageruïdt" (70B, 14); "Ageruld" (70E, 16); "aggeruldt" (76B, 36);" den hvideste Uld" (ib. H, 8); "den fineste Uld' (ib. K, 5); "aager-uld" (157, 10); "ager-uld" (207, 19); "segelen er aff det huide aggeruld" (216, 11, 12); "fuoredt med agger-uld" (237C, 16); "Dugene var af Ageruld' (239L, 24); et passim.
Gold and silver are mentioned frequently, especially the former: "syn Guld saa r0d" (4A, 48); "hans r0de Guld" (5A, 28); "dit Guld saa r0d" (ib. C, 5); "det r0deste Guld" (6A, 7, 8); "Guld hin r0de" (7B, 29); "min r0de Guld' (9G, 23); i Guld saa r00d (11C, 14); "min goede Guld" (28, 16, 17); "Guld saa ródt" (29A, 12); "Guld hynd beste" (31A, 5); "mit gode Guld' (40D, 4); "r0denn Guld" (62, 8); "det Guldt saa r0dt" (65A, 3); "r0dhe gwldh" (67A, 7); "med r0den guld" (76E, 14); "det pureste Guld" (761, 8); "thett r0de Guld" (77A, 11); "Guld saa r0ed" (78B, 27); "det r0de guldt" (79B, 9); et passim. "Huide S0leff" (25, 21); "det huide s0lff" (31B, 32); "dett huide s0lff" (33B, 4); "s0lff hin huide" (44B, 23); "s0lffuet det huide" (49A, 65); "huyden s0leff" (62, 8); "hvidt S0lff" (67A, 7); "huide S0lff (76A, 55); "mit S0lv saa hvid" (84D, 22); "S0lffuet hin huide" (86C, 8); et passim.
Gold and silver ornaments are kept in costly boxes: "hans gr0ne Skrin" (5A, 28); "for-gyldene Skrin" (20K, 10; 44A, 25; 68C, 12; 126E, 59; etc.); "it gylte Skrin" (44B, 16); "forgyldte Skrin" (58, 24; 94A, 18); "mit guldslagne Skrin" (95E, 8); "et Guld-skrin (121A, 17); "de skrine saa smaa" (128A, 40); "mit forgylte skrin" (239C, 8', 9); "mit guldbeslagne Skrin" (31 lD, 19); et passim.
Broad brooches are mentioned in later ballads: en bradse bred (460A, 22); "den brasse bred" (475A, 176); "Guldbradtzenn" (ib. B, 98); "bradser brede" (484C, 18); et passim.
A gold fillet is worn by high-born maidens: "Hovedguld r0d (126A, 58); "dett hoffuee-guld, dett skiener saa r0d som luue"
(166A, 21); et passim.
Royal crowns are often mentioned; Guldkrone og Dronningenavn" (22B, 23); "Guld-krone r0ed" (32C, 14); "Guldkronn" (39A, 15); "Guldkronen r0d" (65B, 15); "Kronen aff r0de Guld" (66C, 33); "en Kron aff Guld" (68A, 9); "guldkronne saa dyrre"



(72A, 70, 71); "Kronen aff r0de Guld" (75C, 3); "aedel guldkroner" (89D, 9); "en kron aff guld saa r0d" (88D, 16); "den r0deste Guldkrone" (101D, 5); et passim.
Rings occur as partjng gifts, sometime as many as five or ten at a time: "dy r0de Guldringe" (3A, 4, 5); "min aedle Ring" (3D, 23); "min Guldering" (5A, 13); "Guldring" (18A, 37); 'femten gode Guldringe" (31C, 19, 27); "guldringe ny" (68A, 5); "en Guldring" (82A, 14); "min gode Guldring" (ib. C, 20); "myn gulderinge ny" (86L, 21); "en halff Guldring" (114B, 47); "dy Guldringe ny" (121B, 13); "Guldringe IX" (224A, 14); "di guldringe fem" (237C, 17); et passim.
Once a key made of gold is mentioned: "de Guldn0gle saa smaa" (29F, 5); otherwise keys are simply called small: "de N^gler smaa" (33C, 4, 5; 277D, 5; 304A, 12; etc.).
Luxury is displayed in saddles, spurs, and bridles: "din forgilte Saddel" (9E, 21); "Sadles dyrre" (10D, 19); "gyllt Sadell" (22B, 6; 32A, 57); guldsaddel (32B, 31; 49A, 16); i forgyldene Saaddell" (39A, 7); "giylt sadel" (54A, 28); "Guldsadel" (58, 4, 9); "gyllte saaddell" (62, 9); "saadell aff s0leff och biesell aff guld (122, 15); min gode sadel' (132D, 30); et passim. "Forgyldenne Spore" (7A, 48; 45, 22); "forgyldte spore" (82B, 13); "forgylte spore" (116, 3, 4); "skarppe saa varre hans spore" (377A, 2); "derris sporre war saa klinnge" (ib. B, 2); "hans sporre dy var saa skindende" (ib. D, 3); et passoim. "Forgyldene Mile" (137A, 18; 180B, 4; 229A, 1; etc.); "langen spanget Mile" (137A, 19); "Bitzell af hviden s0lff" (182A, 5); "met Gadde-bitzell i hende" (258A, 14); et passim.
Iron and steel are mentioned as materials for weapons and handcuffs, and walking over red-hot iron in proof of innocence occurs several times: "son blankenn iernn" (3C, 6); "som den haardeste Jaern" (3E, 10); "y hardenn iernn" (20A, 60); "det haarde Jern'' (26C, 10); "aff haarde iern" (70C, 20); "de gloende Jaern (100A, 22); "det kolde Halsjaern" (110, 11); "i haarde jern (178C, 5); bolt oc horde iern (182A, 2); 'de Jaern saa blaa (186G, 10); "y haarden iiann" (290C, 2); "det gloendis iern (262D, 20); det harde iernn (ib. F, 23); enn gluuendis iiarn (ib. G, 23, 24); "bolt och haarden iern" (328, 6); "Jaernet



saa blaa" (421H, 12); "dhett kalle iern" (443A, 17); "iern hin hard" (478, 27); "y blanckenn iiernn" (479E, 24); staall saa haard" (181A, 7); "i haarden staall" (298A, 19); 'thett kolde staall" (31 IA, 28, 29); "Staal saa bla" (329A, 8); et passim.
8 Habitations. Several of the towns mentioned in the ballads receive epithets; saa faur en By (20A, 2; C, 6); saa guodt en bye" (ib. E, 2, 7); "Babyion, den store Stad" (103C, 1); "Westeruig, den r0de Stad" (126A, 140); "leg haffuer werrit i Parris, y-blannt dy mannge folck" (294A, 16).
Castles are more frequent than towns: "hans Borg saa r0d" (5B, 24); "paa hyggenn Boriig" (7D, 2); "borige saa bolde" (49A, 86); "borrigen saa r0ed (93, 2); di borrig saa r0de (126A, 127); borig saa bolde (127AB, 3); otte guldborrig (183D, 3); otte Guldborge" (249D, 5); "ni Guldborge, saa r0d som en Lov'" (ib. E, 19); "de otte Guldborge sk0nn" (ib. H, 25); "ther stander en borig saa harlig" (276A, refrain); "borig saa bold" (297A, 52); "Borge saa r0de" (354C, 12); "Men de borger stander nu saa herlige" (276B, refrain); "De bygger op Guldborrig i-saa herlig" (276C, refrain); et passim.
The principal room of the castle is the high loft : Dronningen staar i H0jeloft" (7D, 28; D, 15); i H0jeloft (19A, 5; 24, 11); "y hyffue lofft" (27A, 9; 32A, 9; 49B, 44); "udi h0yelofft" (49A, 19); "i h0ielofft" (67D, 5); "i h0jen Loft" (70E, 4); "h0ye-lofft" (71B, 11); "hoffuitlofft" (78A, 11); "hoylofft" (87B, 34); "hyffuen lofft" (89A, 30); et passim.
This high loft had a kind of gallery or balcony, from which people could look out: "Hyffelofts-Svalle" (4A, 6); "huiffelofftssualle" (37B, refrain); "H0jelofts-svale'* (82A, 39); "hyffeloffssvale" (111A, 28); et passim.
The looking out could also take place from the pinnacles of the castle, or from the tower, the latter often being a dungeon-keep: "paa h0gen wern" (2B, 9; C, 13); paa hygenn werrnn (258C, 13); "paa h0yen Tinde" (7H, 2); "under'hi0gen Tiende" (10A, 10); "altt under den h0ge tinne' (470, 14); paa h0yen Taarn (71C, 6); "Blaataarnet" (101A, 6, 7); "Fangetaarnit" (ib. B, 11; C, 5, 6); "thornit saa r0d" (11 IC, 10); "det fange-torn" (290A,



14); "Fangetaarnet" (305A, 6); "Taarnet det blaa" (305E, 7); "Kirk-taarn" (473F, 28).
Games and dancing often take place on the green ramparts of the city or castle: "offuer thi gr0ne wolde" (10E, 13); "paa de gr0nneste Volde" (57, 24); "den vold saa gr0nn" (66B, 2); "dend gr0ne vold (70D, 30); "Traed saa let over den gr0nne Vold" (95C, refrain); "Traed let over den gr0nne Vold" (186E, refrain); "I riider offuer gr0nne Wold" (221ABCD, refrain); "paa den gr0ne wold" (240A, 1); "paa gr0nneste Vold" (254E, 2); "Thy Kongens meand ganger paa wolde, thy kaaster med Stange och stieen (293A, 5); "De menne gaar paa volden, de kaster med stock, och steen' (298A, 11); "Her dandser baade iomfruer og moer paa gr0nnen Voldt" (282A, refrain); et passim.
The bower occurs frequently, but no outstanding epithets are attached: saa h0y en bure" (194C, 1); "ved Stranden mit Bure saa taet" (245A, 1).
Bridges are mentioned, not only across rivers, but also as a name for the steps leading to the "H0je!oftsvale", this being called H0jeloftsbro ; the Gjallar bru of Northern mythology occurs in one ballad; en Broff saa bred (40A, 10); paa stieene-bro" (45, 13); "h0yeloffts~broe" (49A, 45); "hygge-loftbroe" (67B, 18); "den vinde-broe" (ib. D, 16); "hyffue-loffts-broff (72A, 13); den brede Bro" (82E, 37); "paa brederen Bro" (84C, 9); "saa breder en Bro" (112D, 3); "hi0eloffts-brou" (12IC, 6); "h0jeloftsbro (126E, 66); et passim. The Gjallar bru occurs in the expression: "Christ offuer Gielle-broe" (256, 4).
Various kinds of houses occur; the bride-house, an outhouse to which the bridal couple was solemnly escorted, being mentioned frequently. Further there are big and little houses, a stone house, an alms-house, a school-house, and a birth-house; brude-huss" (16C, 22); saa h0jt et Huus (2C, 12); "brud-husen" (32A, 45); "brude-huse" (46A, 44); "det store huss" (34A, 67); "ith lidet huss, de fattige derinde at hvile" (103A, 20); "brude-husud" (124, 18); "brude-huus" (130A, 37); "skole-hus" (151AB, 6); "barselhuus (335A, 5); et passim. A gallery for watching tournaments is once called diistehuss (329B, 7) or "dysters-huus" (ib. D, 7).
Gardens partake more of the nature of orchards than of flower



gardens; the words "Urtegaard" and "Abildgaard" are used more than "Have": "ieg wor gangendis y min 0rter-gaard" (279A, 14,
15); "den Urtegaard af ny" (369A, 20); i min Faders abildgaard" (372A, 14, 5); "vor Faders Urtegaard" (416C, 1); "Urttehaffue" (145B, 2); "Klosterhave" (168B, 16).
Articles of furniture are limited to tables, used for dining and for playing at the dice; seats; and beds: "ved breden Bord" (6C. 2); "offuer det brede Bordt" (7A, 3); "et Thavlebordt av Guld" (ib., 49); "over bredit bord" (11C, 5); "offuer sit breede Bord' (23B, 1); "breder Bord" (32C, 5); "brede bordt (33B, 1); ' taffuelbord" (86C, 36); "tauell-bord" (124, 3, 4); "tafflebord" (132B,
16); "skyfver-bor" (134, 3); "thauffle-bord, thend war aff guld hind regnne" (166C, 26); et passim. Long benches stood along the tables, a special bench being the seat of honour for a bride: "Bruddebaenk" (16A, 24); "brude-benk" (46A, 36); "Brudebaenk" (95B, 15); et passim. Beds are mentioned often: "en silcke-seng (5C, 26); "saa guod en sengh" (41A, 14); "brude-seng" (46A, 45; 49A, 54; 53A, 10; 75D, 32; etc.); "saa deilig en opredt saeng" (65B, 11); "silche Seng" (91, 9); "sikken dejlig Brudesaeng" (101G, 13); "en axelseng" (197B, 25); "en axel-sengh" (123B, 9); "en opredt seng' (287, 17); helle-seng (138D, 16); barsellseng" (298D, 31); "silkede seng" (311Gb. 13); "axell-senngh" (267B, 8); "sotthe-senng" (376A, 2); "en seng saa god'' (421A, 11); et passim.
Both benches and beds were provided with cushions and pillows, blue or red in colour. Lying on straw occurs, but rich beds have silk coverings:"Hyndet saa blaa" (37F, 9); H0nde blaa (42A, 4); "H0ndet blaa" (49A, 6); "hiundet blaat" (83B, 7); "hynder blaa" (84B, 29); "h0ndet r0d" (84B, 30); "h00nde blaa" (11 IA, 18); "h0nder r0de" (ib. B, 12, 13); et passim. Bolster blaa (4A, 33, C, 45); "Bolster saa blaa" (46F, 14); Bulster blaa (84H, 14); "Bolsteret blaa" (87N, 7); de bolstre saa blaa (89G, 16); "Mynn lagenn di ere saa r0de. mynn Bolster di ere saa blaa (108A, 12; B, '9); "de Bolster er r0de, de Lagen er blaa'' (109B, 14); ' di silcke-syet Puder" (294D, 14); et passim. "Baarenn straa'' (-89A, 13); "di barre Straa (138A, 65); det bare Straa (263G, 12);



et passim. 'Der sloge de Silketjald (7DE, 1); Silketjaeld (7A, 36; D, 1); "sylcke-thielde" (44A, 23); et passim.
Lighting was done by candles or torches: "de voxlius" (20A. 28); "en Voxkierthe" (ib. B, 3; D, 21); "store Voxlius' (89B, 10); "de Praase saa smaa" (89D, 17); "wox-kiert" (126A, 52); "nattelyss" (138A, 25, 26); "thalle-liuss" (266A, 41); "wax-liss" (142A, 19); "sit store Voxlys" (183F, 29); "viet salt og lius" (294C, 8); "woxe-liuss, di war med wox om-snod" (259E, 48); et passim. A special use for torches was for escorting the bridal couple to the bride-house: "Brudebluss" (46A, 44); "dy h0ie blus" (76B, 41); "brude-blaasz" (129A, 31; 332K, 36); "de gule Blus" (210B, 23); "dy hpie blus" (217A, 14); "di store bluss" (266A, 41); "djer Brudeblus" (2771, 16); "dy brende-blus" (394A, 26); et passim.
Fires occur, also as as simile for something bright and shining: "brendendis loffue" (7A, 55); "brennende loffue" (20B, 3); "lue hin blaa" (ib. E, 52); 'braendende Lue" (76G, 8); "som r0deste Lue" (ib. K, 4); "udi r0deste Lov'" (101G, 12); "brendendis Lue' (108F, 15); "udi brendende Low" (112B, 3); "y lyse loffue" (ib. E, 3); "y breden loffue" (113, 12); et passim.
Wood was the usual building material; "when stone is mentioned it is marble; "graa malmerstienn" (70B, 26); "hvid marmorsten' (761, 7); "graa marmorsten" (ib. K, 7); "graa marmorsteen" (89B, 16); "graa malmersteenn" (93,18); "malmiir-steen" (138A, 29); "den beste malm aff marmorsten" (252D, 31); et passim.
For travelling by land carriages were used which are described as gilt coaches, or hanging coaches, the latter referring to the leather straps in which they hung: "gyldenn Karm" (84B. 20); "min bedste Guldkarm' (ib. C, 10; D, 14); "udi singyldene karm (87C, 25); "karmen r0d" (ib., 39); "forgyldene Karm" (94B, 1); "den ski0ne Karm" (127B, 22); "gyllte karm saa r0d" (130A, 14); "guld-karme" (138F, 25); "heenggend karum" (31 IA, 13); "hengendis Karm" (312A, 13); "forgyelt er hendis hennge-karm" (259H, 39; "karumen saa booelde" (269A, 20); "min forgylte Vogn" (191, 13); "hengende karm" (ib., 14); et passim.
There is much mention of boats and ships: "smaa Baade" (39C. 14); "den liden Baad" (128Am 24, 25); en liden Fiskerbaad



(272B, 13); "saa stercke Skib" (21B, 8); "Snecke store og stercke" (ib. D, 13); "y forgyldene sneckee" (27A, 14); "mangt it orlogskib" (ib. B, 1); "mangen here-skib" (28, 19); "den liden snecke" (49B, 33); "di danske skib" (71D, 4, 5); "herreskib" (ib. E, 6, 7, 8); "giult snecke" (72A, 15, 16); "gylt snaecken" (84A, 23); "snecke guod" (128A, 24, 25); guldsnecke blaa" (280A, 3); "guld-snecke r0de" (ib., 4); "et kosteligt Skib" (376C, 3); guldsnaekke, var med Jaern klaedt" (466, 6); et passim.
Brightly coloured sails were in use, and the yard was gilt: "sin Sylcke seeggeel" (11B, 23); "deris silcke-seggell" (32A, 33); ' derid forgylte seyl" (32B, 7); "Sejlene skal vaere af Skarlagen ród" (47A, 3); "segell baade brune och blaa" (387A, 14); "seiele baade gule och gr0nne" (ib. B, 17); "siell aff sylcke hin rdde" (407A, 6; B, 8); et passim. "Med forgyldene Raa" (11B, 23); 'i forgyldene rae" (34B, 75); "saa h0jt i forgyldene Raa" (133AB, 5); "i forgyldene Raa" (137AB, 3); et passim.
9. Occupations. Eating and drinking occupy an important place, likewise playing at the dice. Singing and playng the harp furnished entertainment, and there was dancing and jousting. The knights attended the district and the national parliament, and the ladies had their sewing and embroidery, besides tending their yellow locks. Weddings, betrothals, and funerals were celebrated with much eating and drinking. The usual drinks are wine, mead, and beer; milk is mentioned a few times: 'thett wyn saa klaar' (4A, 31); "Vjnen r0de" (4Cml8, 19); "den klare Vin" (18D, 73); 'Vin hin klare' '(30B, 15); "den klare Wienn" (32C, 3); 'klaren Vin" (34A, 43); "denn klaarre wynn" (62, 36); "det klare uin" (114B, 37); "voris ny-ki0btte winn" (130E, 30); "den Vin saa s0d ' (241A, 5); "den klareste Vin" (ib. B, 5); "enn dryck aff sin wintervin" (266A, 34); "det varme Vin" (277F, 26); 'den forgiftede Vin" (305C, 18); "nytt-blend wynn" (345B, 19); ' ny blendt win' (451B, 17); "n0y-blend vin" (486B, 22); et passim. Den M0d saa s0d" (4A, 11); "Mj0d den er brun" (37G, 6); det brune m0d" (54B, 15); "denn brunne m0dt" (152A, 6); mi0d hind s0dde (398, 18); "den brune Mj0d" (353A, 23); et passim. Deriss festens0ll" (70D, 26); "festen0ll" (ib. C, 43); "festenss0ll och bryllup sammen" (184E, 28); 'varm 0ell' (277B, 45); godt 0l



til fals" (382B, 4, 5); "det fede 01" (397C, 6); et passim. "Den Melck saa huid" (4A, 11); "s0dt Melck" (4B, 14); "Maelken er hvid" (37G, 6); "Mj0den er brun, men Maelken er hvid" (271B, 6); "i snehvideMaelk" (311Db, 23); "thi Maelken er hvid, og Mj0den er brun" (357E, 15); et passim.
Playing-tables and dice were objects of luxury: "Guldtavle" (6C, 2); "en Taffuel saa r0d aff Guld" (7H, 18); "Guldtavl hin r0de" (10D, 20); "Guldtavel" (40E, f3); "Guldthaffuel" (68A, 20); "Guld-thaffuel saa r0d" (72A, 35, 36); "skoutaffel" (72B, 20); "Skoufftaffuel" (132A, 20); "thagell aff r0de guld" (ib., 21); "guld-taffuel" (135B, 11, 12); "skaktavel" (184F, 3); "skafftaffuel" (2591, 45); et passim. "Guldterning" (137A, 9, 10); "taerning .... die vare aff r0den guld" (166A, 25); "Guldtaerning" (477C, 18); et passim.
The word Leg, game, is used for the game of dice, for fighting, and for the playing of instruments; "skaufftaffls leg" (72A, 28); "fuld haard en leg" (126D, 125); "harpeslett eller pibeleg" (195A, 14, 15); "valske pibe-leg" (ib. D, 15, 16); "saa ynckelig en leg" (136A, 6); "min Harpe-Straengeleg" (304C, 10); "saa haar en lieeg" (327, 14); "harje-lieg" (344A, 9); "saa underlig Leegen mon' falde" (475C, 1); et passim.
Harps were gilt; "Guldharpen prude" (18ABCD, 1); "Guldharpenn prud" (34A, 15); "min Guldharpe" (40E, 18); "Guldharppen" (69, 4); "guld-harpe" (72A, 24); "forgyldennde harpe" (73A, 7); "guld-harpe saa r0d" (73A, 34); "sin gode guldharpe" (226A, 1); "en Harpe af Guld" (265A, 10); et passim. "Di wellske pibber" (379A, 4).
Singing is mentioned frequently; people saag in church and in the hall, anden joyed listening to the song ofb irds: "deres dejlige sang" (173, 15); "afftteens-saang" (194A, 22); "paa Fuglesang at h0re" (284, 2); "otte-sang" (312A, 8); "saa liflig en sang" (335B, 18); "ottesang och h0gmesze" (337C, 34); "natther-galesang" (437A, 13); "Aftensang" (338G, 1); "Fuglesang saa liflig og sk0n" (441A, 1); "Brudesang" (440A, 29); et passim. Songs are sometimes mentioned alone, sometimes in connexion with stories: "en elskoffuens Vise" (126A, 75, 76); "en elskoens Vise" (129, 19, 20); "en elskoffuens wisse" (240B, 9); "en Vise saa net"



(245A, 15); "saa mannge wisser oc suuentiur" (431A, 14, 15); 'saa mange en faur euentyr" (ib. B, 22, 23); et passim.
Dancing was a favourite pastime for knights and ladies: "en lidenn dantz" (16A, 26); "en skricke-dantz" (ib. B, 29); "en skrecker-rey" (ib. C, 29); "en Ellefreue-Dands" (47C, 2); "Elkvinde-Dands" (ib. D, 20, 22); "Beder-Dantz" (126D, 107; 129, 13); "den ridder-dantz" (220A, 2); "beeder-dantz" (240A, 1); "lycke-dantz" (ib., 2); "beder-Dandsen" (243B, 7); "saa h0ffsk en rider-dandz" (261, 2); "og jeg har og en Sjaellends-Dans for et Par Brud' folk, traed'" (397C, 8); "enn bedre-danna" (465, 2); et passim.
Ting is the place where parliament or district council was held and justice administered, and also refers to the parliament or council itself: "de brede Tinge" (2C, 11); "over breden Ting" (84D, 1); "paa breden Ting" (145A, 39); "b0nnder-ting" (298F, 44); "herritz-ting" (ib. G, 40); landzting (302C, 21); lands-ting (330, 1); "ryder-tung" (333A, 2); 'b0nner-tyng" (ib., 6); "landsting" (42IA, 4; B, 3); et passim. The day of a meeting is called "Herredag": "Kongenn hand laadder enn herre-dage gi0rre" (299A 13); et passim.
There are many references to the sewing and embroidery done by noble ladies: "aldrig saa lidenn en s0m",(2OC, 18); "aldrig saa stacked en s0m" (ib. D, 17); "deres Silcke-s0n" (20G, 19; 31C, 10); "de S0mme saa hvide og smaa" (83F, 2); "Simmen hvid" (ib., 6, 7); "hvide S0mme" (ib. G, 1); "Sommer-S0mme" (239A, 19, 21); "min lange somer-s0m (ib. 5, 15); Sommersys0m (ib. G, 13, 14); "min r0de Gulds0m" (ib. K, 5, 11); "syer de silckes0mme" (259A, 50); "saa liden en s0m" (265A, 2); den silckis0m" (356A, 12); et passim. The scissors they used were often of gold or silver: "solffbundenn sax (144A, 26); min S0lffver Sax" (ib. F, 21); "enn sax aff guld" (218B. 16); "denn Skraeddersax" (ib. H, 14); "Guldsaksen" (360G, 1); 'Guldsaws (ib. F, 1); et passim.
The hair was tended, not only with combs, but also with brushes: "s0lffslagenn Kam" (33B, 24); "S0lverkam" (ib. C, 37); "Guldkam" (90A, 12); "en Guldkam af sit Skrin" (133, 16); "Guldb0rste" (58, 21); "guldbundenn b0rsse" (78A. 3); "en Guldb0rste



(338C, 5); "en S0lverb0rst, dertil en S0lverkam" (473G, 13).
We can take leave of the lands and ladies occupied in sleeping: "S^ffnen s0d" (4C, 44, 45); "en s0ffn, den var vel s0d" (83E, 26); "en s0ffn, hand var icke s0d" (183B, 21); "saa s0dt en seiffn (461A, 7; BC, 9); "min morigen-s0ffn" (289B, 16); "folkene ere alle i f0rste s0ffne" (290A, 13); "saa manngenn s0de s^ffnen" (285A, 8); "relig s^ffuen' (ib. C, 8); et passim.



CONCLUSION.
1. The natural world. When we compare the three countries of which the epithets have been summarized, we see that in England and Spain there is rivalry between two contending races, the English and the Scots in one case, the Spaniards and the Moors in the other. The struggle betéween the latter two was fiercer, as religious fervour come into play; also, the Moors were occupying freshly conquered territory, from which they were eventually driven away, while the English and the Scots were neighbours indulging in a milder form of warfare, the border raids. It is, then, no wonder that fiercer epithets were employed against the Moors than against the English and Scots, and one must commend the noble pride of the Spaniard in conceding favourable epithets to the enemy when the occasion arose. Denmark occupied a more isolated position, conducting warfare "under (/)", in foreign parts, and had occasion for the use of vituperative epithets only when describing the heathen host in the Baltic lands or yet farther afield.
Differences in climatic conditions are reflected in the choice of the times of the year at which events occur. Love of nature will cause the English to mention the merry month of May, a long summer's day, or harvest time, in order to indicate when events occured. The religious fervour of the Spaniards causes them to mention the Saints' Days on which occurrences took place. The Danes say much in praise of summer, the only fair season of the colder climate, and, like the English, comparatively seldom mention Saints' Days. The times of day in all three ballad groups are morning, evening, and midnight; probably owing to the mediaeval custum of rising early and sleeping after the midday meal, the afternoon is never mentioned as the time of action.
Sun, moon, and stars receive attention in all three countries, the sun being particularly appreciated in Denmark.
The epithets for the sea are most standardized in the Danish



group, with its "salten S0" and "Belgen blaa". The Spanish term "Ja mar salada" may be from the French "la mer salée". Also in the English and Scottish group, "salt" is the favourite epithet for the sea. The frequent mention of hills and dales in Danish ballads may also be due to French examples, French ballads often beginning with the geographical indication "la-haut sur la montagne", or "la-bas dans la vallée", as Dr. Brouwer points out.
Woods and flowers are mentioned extremely frequently in English-Scottish and in Danish ballads, both groups breathing a love of nature which is absent in Spanish popular poetry. As Professor S. de Madai.dya remarks in fiis witty study: "Anglais, Francais, Espagnols" (p. 228): "Le paysage ne joue qu'un röle insignifiant dans 1'art de 1'Espagne"; this is owing to "sa tendance a se consacrer spécialement a 1'homme".
What applies to landscape applies likewise to animals: to quote Prof. de Madariaga again: "les animaux sont aussi rares, sauf, de-ci, de-la, quelques chevaux .... pas présentés objectivement, mais plutöt du point de vue de 1'homme". It is true that the Spaniards' love for their horses, as apparent in the popular ballads, is owing to the fact that the horses are very useful to them in battle; however, just because they are considered as horses for the horseman's sake, the charger of Spanish warriors receive the most varying and vivid epithets. When, in the days of the decay of the ballad, the Spaniards conquered America, the horses were repeatedly mentioned in the letters of the conquistadors as being the greatest help of man, save God. (See; R. B. Cunninghame Graham: "Horses of the Conquest").
When in "The Hunting of the Cheviot" (Ch. 162, verse 6) it is described how "Greahondes thorowe the grevis glent. for to kyll thear dear" one feels some joy in observing the animals' grace and rapidity for its own sake. There lies a certain affection in the terms "bonny bird", "sweet nic^htingale", etc. in English, and "Fugle smaa" in Danish ballads: the terms "good steed" (Ch. 81B, 4), "gallant steed" (Ch. 262, 25), "good gray nagie" (Ch. 228A, 2) indicate some degree of affection, but in general EnglishScottish ballads only indicate the colours of horses, or a horse will be praised for being "right and swift of fit" (Ch. 192A, 4). In



Danish ballads the terms for horses are greatly conventionalized, the "Gangere graa" and "Gangere hvid" occuring with almost boring monotony.
2. The heavenly world. References to a heathen conception of world, Heaven, and Heil are comparatively scarcei n ballad literature. I do not share the views held forth by Magister A. C. Christensen in his lecture on the Danish ballads held in Amsterdam in 1931, to the effect that a heathen spirit is refleected in them, Christian conceptions being but vaguely indicated. On the contrary I think that the ballads are tinged with 4he spirit of the Roman Catholic religion, which was generally accepted as a matter of course. That deeds of barbarism were committed, as they are up to the present day, is no proof that a real heathen conception of life reigns supreme. The many ballad references to "den wolde Guld" and "den rige Christ" point to a general spread of the Christian faith. The attendance of mass is mentioned frequently, as also in English-Scottish ballads, where the stock phrase "bells were rung, mass was rung occurs repeatedly. In Catholic Spain, acceptance of the Chritian religion was established beyond a doubt, and the defence of this faith was the governing motive in the expulsion of the Moors. The mention of Saints' Days is most frequent in Spanish ballads, especially of St. John s Eve and St. John's Day.
3. The nether world. There are more survivals of heathendom in references to the nether world, which is only natural, the powers of the discarded faith being relegated to the lower realms in the new faith. Mermaids continue to play a part in superstition, and in Scandinavia the belief in trolds persisted for a considerable time, trold stories being in circulation till the 19th century. (See: "Nordens Gudeverden", by Axel Olrik and Hans Ellekilde).
4. Persons. In comparing the three aspects of family relationships, it is striking that so little mention is made of the mother in Spanish ballads, whereas there is as frequent mention of the mother as of the father in English-Scottish and Danish ballads.



Brother and Sister have the epithet "dear" in all three groups, and the English and Scottish group also has the alliterative epithets "bold brother" and "sweet sister".
The uncle-nephew relationship is made much of in all three groups, and the sworn brother (Staldbroder) form of friendship is a special feature of the Danish group. The step-mother is wicked throughout, as in the folk-lore of all countries.
The bride is a conspicuous figure in the English-Scottish and Danish ballad: the page is important in all three groups.
The ranks of society as represented in the ballads are those of civilized European mediaeval times. The king and queen are the highest personages everywhere, much admiration is bestowed on the knight, Ridder, and hidalgo, and also, notably in the Danish group, on the maiden of high birth.
The outlaw plays an important part in the English and Scottish. as well as in the Danish group.
Among the humbler classes, the English archer is an object of national pride, being mentioned but rarely in the Continental groups. The nurse nowhere enjoys a good reputation. It is surprising that the professional beggar is not mentioned in Spanish ballads, seeing that in subsequent times the beggar has always been a conspicuous figure in Spain, and probably was so in the Middle Ages.
Musicans are always harpers in the ballads, the harp being the most widely used instrument in Western Europe during the Middle Ages.!)
The music they produced was composed in the old church scales, popular music and church music exercising reciprocal influence. 2)
5. Emotions. Emotion is most frequently described in the Spanish ballad-group; the varying expressions of the human face are frequently mentioned and so are the tones of the human voice.
*) Note: See: Hortense Panum: "Middelalderens Strengeinstrumenter og deres Forl0bere i Oldtiden".
2) Note: See: Angul Hammerich: "Müsik-Mindesmaerker fra Middelalderen i Danmark" and Erik Abrahamsen: "Eléments romans et allemands dans le chant grégorien et ia chanson populaire en Danemark".



Here we see the Spanish tendency to "se consacrer spécialement a 1'homme" in full force.
Tears, sighs, and laughter occur in all three groups, and everywhere there is considerable love-interest.
6. Actions. The action of looking over the shoulder, to mark a new phase in the narrative, is a feature of English-Scottish and Danish ballads, the former group mentioning first the left, then the right shoulder, and the latter using the phrase "over Skulderen saa".
The writing of letters is a device common to all three groups to pass from one part of the narrative to the next.
The description of fierce battles is typically Spanish, while the swearing of oaths is frequent in all three groups.
7. Appearance. Descriptions of dress are especially elaborate in Danish ballads, perhaps because these were noted down to a large extent by ladies of the nobility, who would be likely to take a great interest in dress.
The mantle is an important item in alle three groups, the Danish group showing a marked preference for mantles of scarlet, perhaps the "mantel écarlate" of French poetry.
Sleeves are mentioned in English-Scottish and in Danish ballads, the former being partial to grass-green ones.
Rich beits and rings occur in all three groups, the ring being a symbol of faithfulness. Also swords and spears are found everywhere, the wee pen-knife being a special feature of the Scottish ballad.
The horn occurs frequently in Danish and English ballads, the trumpet being more often mentioned in Spanish specimens.
Definite descriptions of colours are noticeable in the EnglishScottish group; the colours of materials are described merely as red, white, blue, or grey in the Danish section, while in the former we find milk-white, Lincoln green, etc.
The bow, like the archer, is £ particularly English feature.
Descriptions of beautiful hair abound, especially in the Danish group, and everywhere "yellow" locks are preferred.



8. Habitations. The castle is the most frequently mentioned abode in alle three groups, the Carolingian group of Spanish ballads also frequently mentioning the royal palace, "el palacio real".
The bower occurs in the English-Scottish and Danish groups, the garden taking its place in the Spanish specimens. Gardens also occur several times in English-Scottish ballads, and much less in Danish, where the orchard is more frequent.
Ships occur more often in the English-Scottish and Danish groups than in the Spanish.
Towns receive epithets particularly in the English-Scottish group, perhaps because towns were not yet of importance in Spain, and of but slight importance in Denmark; Roskilde, Hedeby, Odense, Ribe, Paris, Amsterdam, and Babyion are mentioned, but without epithets.
The prison is described in all three groups as a dark and dreadful abode, and the tower occurs everywhere as a place for looking out. This looking out takes place in Danish ballads frequently from the high gallery called "H0jenloftssvale".
Windows are given various names, such as bow-window and shot-window, in English-Scottish ballads, but not in the Continental groups, though they are mentioned.
The well only occurs in the English-Scottish group, the spring taking its place in Spanish balladry.
9. Occupations. The sewing of the silken seam is a feature common to the ballads of England, Scotland, and Denmark. Prof fessor A. Jeanroy surmizes that this style of narrative was imported from France, where songs beginning with a description of women sewing are called "chansons de toile".
Dancing occurs in all three groups, and is particularly frequent in the ballads of Denmark, where the dance under the green trees often forms the theme of the refrain. Singing probably accompanied the dance.
Playing at the dice is frequent in the Continental groups, less so in the English-Scottish. The game of bohordar and the sport of bullfights are peculiarities of the Spanish group.



BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Francis James Child: English and Scottish Popular Ballads.
Svend Grundtvig: Danmarks gamle Folkeviser.
D. Agustin Duran: Romancero General.
F. J. Wolf & C. Hofmann: Primavera y Flor de Romances.
W. M. Hart: Ballad and Epic.
Sigurd B. Hustvedt: Ballad Books and Ballad Men.
Francis B. Gummere: The Popular Ballad.
W. P. Ker: History of the Ballad. Transactions of the Royal Hist. Society, Parts II and III, third series.
Robert Graves: The English Ballad.
H. Eicker: Die historische Volksballade. Leipzig, Quelle und Meyer, 1926.
D. Brouwer: Das Volkslied in Deutschland, Frankreich, Belgien und Holland. Wolters, Groningen, 1930.
Lewis Spence: Legends and Romances of Spain.
James Fitzmaurice-Kelly: A new History of Spanish Literature.
S. de Madariaga: Anglais, Frangais, Espagnols.
G. Kalff: Westeuropeesche Letterkunde, deel I.
H. A. Paludan: Spanske Romancer i Danmark og paa Island. Edda, XXII, 3. 1924.
M. Menendez y Pelayo: Tratado de los Romances viejos, vols. XI & XII of the Antologia de poetas liricos castellanos desde la formación del idioma hasta nuestros dias. Madrid, 1890-1908.
G. Doncieux: Le Romancéro Populaire.
A. Jeanroy: Les Origines de la poésie lyrique en France au moyen age.
Guy le Strange: Spanish Ballads. Cambridge, 1920.
Joh. Steenstrup: Vore Folkeviser fra Middelalderen.
A. Olrik: Folkelige Afhandlinger.
A. Olrik & Hans Ellekilde: Nordens Gudeverden.
J. de Vries: Stereotype og individuelle Sermerke ved den skandinaviske Folkediktingi.



INHOUD.
CONTENTS.
Blz.
INTRODUCTION 3
CHAPTER I: THE EPITHET IN ENGLISH
AND SCOTTISH BALLADS 6
CHAPTER II: THE EPITHET IN SPANISH
BALLADS 40
CHAPTER III: THE EPITHET IN DANISH
BALLADS 77
CONCLUSION 124
BIBLIOGRAPHY 130







STELLINGEN.
1. "At axsle Skind", explained by Prof. W. M. Hart ("Ballad and Epic") as the putting on of a ceremonial cloak, must be explained as the throwing back of a cloak over one's shoulders.
2. In "green wall sea" (Child 245A, 7,8), wall is connected with
0. E. weallan, to boil, to surge.
3. In "Warn Willeva and Spear Edom" (Child 189, 16), Spear stands for speir, ask, inquire.
4. In "took a lake" (Child 177, 2), lake represents O. E. lac, play, jest.
5. When Sv. Grudtvig translates "The Bent sae brown" by "Det m0rke Skjulested", it would seem that he confuses the curtain behind which the hero hides with the bent-grass on whcih he is killed.
6. In "red river comb" (Child 76A, 2), river is explained in the notes as meaning ivory. More likely it is connected with O. N. rifa, Danish rive, to rake.
7. When Danish at bef ore an infinitive is pro'nounced [ü], it is probably owing to the erroneous application of the word og, arising from the frequency of constructions with two infinitives connected by og (and).
8. The spelling of the infinitive terminations — ise and — ize has not been definitely established in modern English.
9. The place-name Ickornshaw is derived from O. N. ikornaskógr, squirrel forest.
10. H. C. Andersen is often unjustly accused of vanity.
11. Sir Wal ter Scott never forgot that he was a lawyer.
12. The character of Soames Forsyte, in John Galsworthy's "Forsyte Saga", bears a strong resemblance to that of Egill in Egilssaga Skallagrimssonar.
13. The wireless may be the means of reviving interest in the spoken narrative.
14. The iambic pentametre is the natural speaking rhythm in English.
15. The word canstick', in Henry the Fourth Part I, act III, scene
1, line 30, may stand for can-hook.