■ II. One consonant, or a doublé consonant is short atter a long vowel or diphthong: heai. name. car d 1). is long after a short vowel: hiU. damn 2). cat. When in this last case tlje consonant is voiced, we verv often hear, not a short vowel and a , long consonant, graphically: \ Ijl***' i, — _L- lA But the reverse, i. e. a long vowel and a short : : consonant, graphically: ^ * I c a cl In this case the consonant has ceded its length ) to the vowel. § 7. In English we find the following long vowels: 1) the a-sound. See § 2. card 2) the ó-sound. See § 2. cord. I i) Let the reader remember that r in this word is mute. *) .. - » 3) An originally short vowel followed by a voiced consonant, when the length of the consonant is given to the vowel, see § 6. cad. man. god. JNote. A short i or u never undergoes this lengthening. 4) The e of the word yes, though the consonant that follows is voiceless (sharp) and not voiced (soft) as in § 6. All the other vowels are short, or have become diphthongs (see § 4.) § 8. The regular short sound of the vowels is as follows: that of a as in cat. „ ,, e „ ,, set. ,, i « s't- „ o „ „ not. ,, u ,, „ cut. Observe. 1) that e of set is different from Dutch e in ik zet. 2) that i of sit is different from Dutch i in ik zit. 3) that o of not is the same before an m or an n as before d, t, etc. from, on, with the same o sound as not. See § 1. I 3) This (changed) first element forms a murmur-diphthong with the vowel r (= g) that caused the change. § II). Note on name = në'in and care = ké?. In such words as mayor, player, the vowel just before the r is not pronounced, see § 2; although, therefore, to the eye the r is separated from the ay by a vowel. to the ear it follows it immediately and consequently changes the sound of the ay just as it did in care. mayor sounds as mêd. player „ „ plto- In other words there is no difference between mayor and mare. But player can also be pronounced plë<}. because we clearly feel that it is derived from to play. The same with slayer, layer etc. § 11. Note on seem = sï»m and here = lm. Observe that in hïo the j-sound is long and strest and the f-sound i^ short and unstrest Instead of this, however, we often hear speakers make the ï-sound very short and unstrest. - - the 3-sound very long and strest. L t> so that the word here is pronounced as if they said yearn without the n. This is the case with the words: here. dear. hear. year. near. 72 dj 3 ja jd nja § 12. Note on fine = fain and fire = jas. Just as player, layer can be pronounced in two ways (§ 10), words such as: liar, higher, etc. can be heard as: ^ ^ .> lad, has. or, because of the clearly feit connection with to lie, high, they can keep the same vowel-sound as the words from which they are derived: lah, hah. that: is we get a triphthong. However, also where we have tö do with no derivative, can the triphthong often be heard: Ireland = ahlnd. § 13. Note on bone — bö«n and bore = bód or bö. What has been said of layer (§ 10) and higher (§ 12) also holds good of lower (opposite: to raise) etc. viz. derivations are also heard with the same vowel-sound as the word from which they are derived. Hence: lower — lós or ló but also = lö«3. hopgrower = gros or grö „ „ = grö«9. Observe that the diphthong ö« also frequently loses its second element when an i follows: grow = o«; growing — ö-it;x) 1 tv1'- § 14. Note 011 tune = tjü«n and pure = pjöd. Twenty vears ago the pronunciation of such words as pure, cure, jury etc. as pjöo, kjós, fjóri, etc. was rarely heard in educated speech, though general in Cockney. In our day this pronunciation is very common also among educated speakers, especially of a younger generation, and bids fair to become the only one. Still, pjüs, kjüy etc. may still often be heard. •) w is mute. See § 110. § 15. Note on bound = au and tower. Words such as tower, flower, sour, can be pronounced in two ways. They can be heard with a triphthong: taud. flans. saus. Or, the second element of the au diphthong may fall away bef ore the r (= p) and the first element slightly lengthened, so that we get tad. ƒ/(i j . s ci y. A comparison with § 12 would show that such words as: liar and flower lao flad are perfect rhymes. Yet, in the case of f tower, flower etc. a slight bringing toge/ tlier of the lips takes place after the { a-sound, which distinguishes these words 1 from those with ï. This slight bringing together of the lips is, of course, only 1 the last remaining tracé of the lost u. Chapter VI. Oritk*j The letter O. J a irrrL yw -H. +JIku j § 49. Besides in the cases mentioned in § 16 the letter o ItJj^ has its alphab. sound: 1) Beforjjl^ ld. It. and st. \ | toll. sold. colt. host. ^U. \ Exceptions: ^ l ^ )jAi, Poll1)- Moll, dollXll, cost, frost, lost. *• 2) In folk 2),j/olk2), don't, woti't, wont3), wonted3), '■ '■ both, gross, Job*), quoth, loth5), sloth, comb, (U/j r» 6 patr°l' c.ontrol'Jflster- hfr :.ï■ ' : 4JUL ■ U j 3) In the prefix pro of 2 syllabic words, when it i fxvva - is strong"strest- \Si prö'test, pro'noun, pro'gram. TV But: Lj^Lix^ process and progress have ö« or o. project and produce ) , f . , J , have o. promise, proverb. \ /L. ') But pZll = stembus has o.W L L'~Ü , 0>-H ' t-v 2) l is mute. ™~ I 3) In both these words the older «-sound may still be heard. *) Job - a proper name — has ö«. But job = karweitje has o. ') loth is also spelled loath. $ «JU. \J = V llld^ic^Lnuiiiuci^uiv^yv^^, cn^ puuu^iu of which are: yyjL one, none, once, wonder, worry, comfort, company, onX Owr-tvCt^ compass, pommel, among, con'jure1), donjon2), AJ (^s. front, Monday, monger3), mongrel, monk, monkey, ril month, son, sponge, ton, tongne, discomfit, come, some, stomach, done, honey, money, onion, cover, ^v, cowr*, cowtf, covey, dove, ployer, glove, govern, '-A-r' vi love, oven, shove, shovel, above, sloven, colour, ^)t,i borougli, thorough, twopence4), brother, mother, I , l^>" nothing, smother, cozen, 5) dozew, pommel, 'U"'W " Lom^om, «tos*. Mi In the following words we hear mostly o now, though the older v may still occasionally be heard: hover 6), 'i •ii,fn',Ir /jcwe/, ccnnrade, conduit, conibat, [ bombast, bomb, frontier, sovereign, grovel. §51. o=ö in the group or + consonant. L lord. sort. = ö or dl in the groups or and or + vowel. ^4/hTU. for. tore. it-nL (See § 9 en § 13). But torrid, foreign vvith o. Why? .;<•''">' 7- ') to con'jure — What the con'juror (= magician) does. But to conjure' = to adjure with con = kan (See § 123). 2) donjon is more commonly spelled dungeon. 3) monger = dealer. Only in compounds: fishmonger, ironmonger. 4) twopence, also pronounced tu"pens. ft) pronounced just like cousin. In fact. cozen is the same word as cousin. Cozen means: to pretend to be a cousin. Hence: to deceive. 6) hover also with ö". ( 4 Note: There is, therefore, not the slightest difference in pronunc. between lord and land or between core and caw. See § 25. § 52. 0 = üu in: d°, l°se> move, prove, two1), tomb, who, whose, ^ ^ U whom, § 53. o = m in: wo//, wotnan, bosom, worsted, 3) wolsey. § 54. o = i> in the group wor + consonant. wort. work. worm. Except only sword (w is mute) with ö. ;<+'■'■' ■ § 55. For the o in unstrest syllables, such as carol, pilot etc. See § 114 ff. § 56. There is a practice among some speakers to lengthen the o in certain words, until it is heard as ó eg: lost, cost, frost, broth, froth, cloth, soft, off, cough, ^ • j god, moth, hospita!, officer. öisU jit || C«vv->^ ürv9 bno y /• ' ^ •) for twopence see § 50 and note. 2) toward can be pron. regularly tüu-wód, or as tód. See § 129. 3) worsted with u = sajet. But worsted: past part of to worst has V. ! /vfW § 57. oa = :ö" / .>■ Aoa/. /oarf. . £*c. in: broad, which has ó. -'' ' * groat and groats are still heard with the older ó but mostly have ö« now. _ ,/ § 58. oe - ö". See § 1(5. , hl /Vv< hc< r f C Exc■ in: ^ (Ul is heard as zcö. / W reservoir, memoir. i'r". . -'aX § 60. oo = ?7»: »'00"- W- Lvvi ExcePt: 1) door and //oor have 03 or 6. blood and flood ,, v. brooch also spelled broach has ö». a) before k: / , \ (M ' rvt) cook. look. ^ LtyI ^ „ / At 5 «w. ^ b) in the words: c •' /v'yr / ¥ y , > / v y/A _ soo/, /oo/, good, wood, stood, woel, ^JLm I § 66- Ö« = ou, before ld, It. J^uj/ j 6ji JL^ mould. shoulder. poultry. lyfalM § (57 ou _ * before ght. ' u- thought. brought. Excdrought (See § 61). (XM, ^ 68. Befoi e r followed or not followed by a consonant ou is pronounced either ö or r>. The latter sound is mostly lieard in words where in French we s _ find ou or eu. t/(OW J&VW- ïtVWJ I • 1 scourge, journal, journey, sojoum1), \cvaJL Utw .-•ƒ i courtesv, courteous. dL tUK, > j — , >( !/nrCw, to ru'c there are many exceptions, and * i"v~ student will do well to consult his dictionary ***1^ for words of this class. i C1 § 69. has thiee different sounds: 1) Pretty much as the o of French homme. This is . heard in unstrest syllables. II window. widow. /O / " i / <. L ') Sojoum is pronounced in 2 ways: to so'joürn (o = ö«; om = 9).' . to sojoum' (for o see § 114//). £/V"£v\w' . Ju* & § 65. = o in: ' This sound is heard: ci) in all strong verbs: throw. grow, sow, strow, Csu-v" b) when in Dutch the same word is found and Engl. ow corresponds to: aag, oog, ei oei, low, bow, own, flow. tin** laag, boog, eigen, vloeien. 3) As au: This sound is heard: a) When the tyu corresponds to Dutch au, oe, ui, u, eu, brow. lower,*) brown, now, sow. mloeren ' vv *«. zeug. b) when the ow corresponds to German au. lower, cower. lauern, kauern. c) When the ou corresponds to French eu, ou flow er, rowel, allow. fleur, rouelle, allouer. ') lower which is the same word as Du. loeren, has a slight/f different meaning. viz. to threaten. 2) As ö«: Chapter VII. The letter U. t (jl^ § 70. The alphabetical sound of u = yw. But the y is lost: 1) after r: rule w / 2) after consonant + l. /•' l/yt ^ , blue And the y becomes i, after s. assume, pron. asimm'1). Except in two words: sure and sugar In these words the s + the y of ym is pronounced as s. Lastly, y becomes voiceless (i. e. gets the sound of German ich) in the mouths of many people after a voiceless consonant, though the voiced sound is also often heard: pew. jew. pure. tune. ') In this case we have a rising diphthong -i.e. one with the stress on the second element. See § 3. When h precedes the alphabetical «-soundj ! a) it is entirely dropped, humoar pron. yi»ma. b) or it is pronounced as in German ich (— %) humour pron. xywms. § 71. In closed syllables u = v. but. nut. t\ f* / >*'■ ' ('j ' Exceptions. I. the u = u a) In the suffix fitl1). beautiful. b) In the words: / f buil, bully, bullet, bulletin, bush, cuckoo, cushion, full, butcher, hulwark, bushel, - ^' bush, bullion, pull, pulpit, pulley, pullet, puss, push, pudding, put. II. the u = v bef ore^ 4 ' ^K/3 I fur. curb. Query: Why has hurry u = v and furry u = ~? III. the u = i in: busy, business, lettuce, minitte2). ') But see § 114ff. 2) that is to say, when it is a noun. The Adj. is pronounced: minü'tc. ^ IV. the u = e in: to bury. burial, Bury. V. the u has its alphab. sound in: impugn, Hugh, ritth, truth. § 72. ua = wa, after g. s, q. language, persrtade, equal. Iwiialo Except: Vu «^.-4., vw w* ^ gnard, guardian, quadrille1), piquant, (f ^ and victuals (see § 78) in which m is mute. ƒ § 73. ?(*-. 1) is mute in unstrest final syllables: / \ )////* V" ^ catalogue, league, tongue. , ' Except in: j • ^ ar'gue, a'gue, val'ue in which «/e has (t *.■&{** : the w sound. 2) = ü'e after q and s. , , queshon, consuetude. . ^ t Except. masquera' de, coquefte, etiquette, conquer, conqueror. But conquest is regular. 'r ') ïhis word is pronounced: kwodril', kwadril' or kadril'. 1 ■§ 78. C. = s before e, i, y. — cent. cigar, cylinder. = k. before l, r, a, o, it. See § 80. clock, crack, cake. corn, cut. = z or s in: sacrifice en suffice. = ts in Italian words: violoncello. vermicelli. = mute: 1) in the ending scle. muscle. 2) in the words: • ■p CUó c-fcvv) czar, csarine, indict, victuals. rc / , * JtOiaM 0 u « i (KJ ■§ 79. ch. (See § 80). a) = k. 1) If the word occurs in Dutch and has a sharp guttural sound as in „ach". echo. chaos, chemistry. 2) If the word occurs in French and has a ft-sound. / > character. 3) If ch stands at the end of polysyllables, that are not English compounds: monarch, epoch. jn a, L\ L Exccpt: ostrich (ch = ts). b) = s. 1) Alter l & )i. filch, pinch, French, truncheon, lunchion. The older sound /s may still be heard in all these words; but s being easier to pronounce, the /-sound is now mostly dropped. 2) In some words taken up from the French, mostly at a recent date. chamois 1), chaise, champig'non, chandelier', charade2), charlatan, chevalier3), chivalry3), chivalrous3), champagne4), machi'ne5), machïnery5), machi'nis/5), tnarchioness. c) = dz in the words: Greenwich6), Woolwich, Harwich, spinach. But of late years the ch in these words can also be heard as ts. See § 130. ') chamois is pronounced sxm'wJ or 'sxm'wo or sxm'oi or saewi1;. 2) charade pron. sarad'. 3) These words cannot, of course, be of late introductiou. 4) champagne pron. Slmpêin'. °) See § 43. Observe that machination has ch = k. B) Greenwich pron. grin'idS. T d) = mute in the words: schedule, schistn, yaclit, drachn. e) = ts in all other cases: chin, cheap, Charles. Note. The Prefix arch = chief, principal, is pronounced ats when a consonant follows: archbishop. ak when a vowel follows. Archangel. Except: ■ archenemy which has ats. § 80. Note on the English A-sound. The three voiceless stop-consonants k, t and p are sometimes aspirated, i.e. followed by a slight A-sound. This aspiration takes place: 1) when they are followed by an strong-strest vowel. king tin peak aspirated. taking beating leaking not aspirated. 2) At the end of a strong strest word. wake meat dip aspirated. mimic mallet gossip not aspirated. § 81. D. D is mute in: 1) Wednesday, handsome, handkerchief. Windsor, Guildford. 2) Mostly in the conjunction and. Note. In some books riband is mentioned as having a d mute. This is quite true. Only, the spelling is obsolete, everybody writing ribbon now. § 82. F. F — v in of, because it is always weak strest. The same in the compounds: hereof, thereoft whereof, hereof. § 83. G. G = dé before e, i or y in words of French or Latin origin: gentle, giant, Egypt. Exc.: in the ending ger, where French has gre. l— eager, tiger. Vlmia V . — z m a few French words of late introduction: rouge, mirage. • .<.*/> tc = g as in French guerre in all other cases where it is not mute. i go, grass, slass, leg. - L' T ' OftVA.t. J ^ Uk\ » C l"jrrr^ta' I V / § 8-4. G is mute: 1) Initially before n. gnaw. jusiyn, AI* 2) Finally before m and n. phlegm, foréign, sign. '' j ,■ / The g of gn remains mute before endings beginning with a vowel: foreigner and before the endings cy, ty, ly, ness, ment. ensigncy, sovereignty. 3) In the word: a- t poignant. , § 85. Gh. — g of guerre at the beginning of a word: ghost. gliastly. = / in the words: langh. laughter, draught. and see § 86. - mute 1) after i high, night. 2) in the group ght brought, straight. § 86. Mark the pronunciation of ough. „ a) = 5«: in dough, though. /b) = of: in cough, trough. , c) = au: in bough, plough, slough ( = morass). d) = vj: in rough, tough, enough, slough (= skin of a serpent). t e) = ok: in shough, hough, loitgh. t f) = vp: in hiccough1). , g) = o: in unstrest final syllables: b'orough. / h) = ü«: in through. , i i ' f § 87. H. This letter is frequently dropped in London and in all dialects, where in educated English it would be pronounced. It is remarkable that this dropping rarely takes place in theXorth, and never in American English. Observe that the same speaker who drops his h inserts it in places where it has no business to be: Hence the Cockney speaks of ' Arry en ' Arriet. and: the pihano. In educated English h is mute: 1) in heir, heiress2), honour. honest, honourable, hoitr 3). ') The word is mostly spelled: hiccup. 2) Not therefore in hcritage, inherit, inheritance. 3) Not however in horary. 2) Often in unstrest position: I have told you = I've told I had „ „ = I'd „ I told his wife = I told 'is wife. I said to her = I said to 'er. Hence also in the following words and others of the same sort: nïhilist, Gra ham, Syd'enham, Clap'ham, ve'hement, fore'liead, shep'herd, liistori'cal But see § 129. 3) After x. exhort, exhibit, txtebiHon" > msït r But exhale is often pronounced with the h, because of the word inhale. For h before u see S 70. , 3 kvv*» ) § 88. /. / is ahvays = dé. John, jelly. Only in Hallelujah j = y = Dutch j. § 89. K. K is mute before n. knee, knife. For aspirated k see § 80. Except in: nephew and Stephen where it is v. Of late years, however these words can also be heard with /. See § 129. § 97. Observe the pronunc. of ph in: plithisis pron. taisis. diphthong pron. dip thoij. or dif tot], — apophthegm pron. ee'pothem. h< § 98. Q. Q is always followed by u. Qu = kw, regularly: qnick. <*- Bat is it k. \ 1) in the ending que. ^ antique. burlesque. \ 2) in the words: L is* cL 7 ./ liquor, conqiter, conqueror, exchequer, ** L coquette, etiquette, masquerade, mosquito, V- \ 7 turquois. mM. l~+ * Compare: conquest -(qu — kw) and conqiter, conqueror (qu = k). § 99. R. See § 2. § 100. S. S is mute: 1) At the end of French words of late introduction: corps, cliamois. 2) In "the words: island, isle, aisle, Carlisle, viscount, Grosvenor, demesne, puisne. The last word is now always written pitny. exc. in puisne judge. S is voiced, (= z) when standing between two vowels: Except in the following cases when it is voiceless: 1) In all adjectivës in se, except wise: base, loose, profuse. 2) In all substantives in sis, sy, osity: c,, C basis, poesy, generosity. 3) In the substantives: basin, mason, garrison, caparison, sausage, palisade, base, crusade, episode, chase, premise, housecase, promise, mouse, C ■' use, purchase, lonse, abuse, excuse, grouse, goose, refuse, tortoise, lease, crease, grease, cease, increase, decrease, release, porpoise2). 1) Mark the plural houses with s = z. 2) Observe that most of these words are of French origin and in French have a voiceless, or a doublé s: mafon, chasse, cesser. th becomes voiced after long vowels and diphthongs. wreaths. paths. Observe that in Dutch we have the rame rule with regard to s; Before the plural ending, final s remains voiceless after a short vowel: kas. kassen. but becomes voiced after a long vowel: kaas. kazen. However, in Dutch there are many exceptions, cf: kous. kousen. 3) Medially. Here we distinguifh three cases: A. The th was always medial. In this case it is a) voiced in Germanic words: father, farther, weather. Exc. in Et hel, Ethelwulf and ocher compounds of Ethel. b) voiceless in all others: au//;or, pander, A/Ziens, ca/Aedral. B. The th, originally initial, became medial through some prefix. In this case the th remains voiceless. thxnk. betf/tink. C. The th was originally final, and became I medial through some suffix. -1 ! " ' P I. the final th stood after a vowel. In (At~ 1 hx.i \ this case: C\- t&fs ^ a) it remains voiceless before a suffix Aat/^Vu / \beginning with a consonant: /* it i ' dea^A. dëa^/ike. \ T ƒ / b) it becomes voiced before a sutfix - ' 11 J beginning with a vowel: Kea^A. hea^/ier. £*c.: gothic, \ithy, snjittiy, frothv, which oave voiceless th. and see §\ 107. II. the final th stood Wfer a consonant. In this case it remains voiceless, except when the consonant is r. filth: ï\\thy voiceless th. worth: wortAy voiced th. Exc.: earthy j earthen (ware) 1 voiceless th. swarthy. I § 107. Many nouns in th (voiceless) correspond to verbs in the (voiced th) / a ba th, to ba the. (ftiA/0 <-, H< breath, to breatóe. iv. ll & But a noun is sometim.es used unchanged as a verb. Then th remains voiceless. to ba th (bijv. een kindje in 't badje stoppen). Often also we form Adjectives from nouns by adding ed, denoting possession: (See § 42. Note 3) a moneyed man = a man having money. a stringed instrument = an i. having strings. a voiced consonant = a c. having voice a breathed consonant = a c. having breath. Observe that the th in this case remains voiceless. § 108. Months and clothes can be pronounced regularly or with ths and thes as z. § 10!l. Strong stress makes it difficult to pronounce a voiced th. If, therefore, the word with would require strong stress, the Englishman avoids the difficulty by putting some word before with, such as along or together, and on this word he then lays the strong stress, so that with remains almost stressless: He came, not alone, but along with your aunt. This is not done when contrast has tobeexpressed: When God is with us, who shall be against us? § 110. W. W is mute: 1) before r and ho write. who. 2) in the words: answer, boatswain, Greenwich, Ipswich, Dulwich, Alnwick (l mute), Harwich, Sonthwark, Pennyworth (pr. penngth), towards. Note. Towards is now very often heard with w, so that we hear the two words: to and wards. See § 129. 3) At the end of words and their derivatives: groM' groiiing. withdrait' withdrawal. draw drajfing-room. 4) in will and would used to express a future. he will go = he'll gö«. §111. Wh. These two letters originally mean voiceless w. In present-day English, however, the w, no matter how spelled, w or wh. is nlways \-oiced, except when the word has strong stress. In the sentence: IF/jen was Shakespeare born? wh is voiced. But when I have asked three or tour times: Why did you do it? without receiving a straight answer, I shall say, getting impatient: „Why?" with voiceless w. § 112. X. X = ks ox. vixen. Exceptions: I. It is 2 at the beginning of a word X .im'UsU*-.i ^ Xenophon. «éJ^u-- r, * p, i^Arr,. l' Kb 4 / Uj wd ! hhl'!"' a) before a strong strest vowel, also when Lt+.t-Lk' an h intervenes: I; -oA* p*- 1' x' \f i > exist. exhibit. V HfU/'-S h l < ——* , 1) All learned words: /)( yy^ 'U- V- : j: / "T f **" ^ doxology, proximity. " i ' s \üi,K Mt ^ u, i, 2) vexation, because of ^ tUUu ' ,• • , / , „ „ to. ^v»v^C^U ft Ci*-> ' ' " / /I m. u-.iv 7 ' ^ On the other hand we have gz, though /es ^ '-U ia •£■'? ' '' ^ might have been expected, in: /j>*" \ ( ex emP^ary because of exam'ple. w riJ:n \ exaltation „ .. ) .^£*3 J . il tU* exultation „ „ ezwfó' / \ y I Jst-1 HLXA* '<-W - «^--b") When there are two syllables between .v t*.. Ca. m v O1, and the accented syllable: ^ WCJUc 't'-. ^ X* (vl, examination. ' ^U- lu Note: to exile'. x mostly ks\ hut gz is also heard. ex'ilc (noun denoting the state), x just as in the verb. ex'ile (noun, denoting the man) x = ks. exiled (adj.) * = ks. s"3- jw Z = z, except in: chintz, quartz, waltz, Switzerland, in which the preceding voiceless consonant makes the z voiceless (= s). Chapter IX. The vowels in weakstrest positions. § Il-t. Inevery polysyllabicwordonesyllablehasthemain stress and all the other syllables are weak strest. Among these weakstrest syllables, however, though sonae are almost stressless, there are others that have secondary stress, stronger or weakei according to their position with respect to the main-strest syllable. In § 40 we saw that in polysyllables there is what we call rhythm i. e. a regular alternation of stronger-strest and weaker-strest syllables. If the main stress, for instance, falls on the 3rd syllable, there is a strong secondary stress on the lst and the 5th; (generosity). If the main stress falls on the 4th syllable, the 2nd will have strong secondary stress (determination). If the main w X_ w_ w stress falls on the 2nd, the -ith will have strong secondary stress (indicative) etc. / \ w — — § 115. The nature of the English accent is the cause that the secondary stress is stronger before the mainstress than after it. § 110. Stresslessness affects vowels and diphthongs in various ways: I. it ma}' cause them to disappear entirely. II. it may leave them intact. III. it may reduce their sonority i. e. give them a less full sound. § 117. I. The ünstrest vowel disappears: a) in shall and will forming the future: I sh'll go; you'il go etc. b) in the auxiliary can. Mark the pronuncialion of can in the sentence „can he go?" according as the strong stress is on the lïrst, second or third word: can he go? can strong str. a = ce. can he go? can just before the main stress a = lost. can he go? can separated from the main stress by one syllable; hence, with secondary stress a = 3. c) In the auxiliary do followed by you in ques- tions. What do you say? = d'yd Hovv do you do? = d'yd.... d) In the adverb not, when it is a sentence- modifier. He is not = he izn't. e) In the expressions: there is = there' z. it is = it's. he is = lie'z. let us = let's. 1 am = l'm. f) before l and n when preceded: 1) by another d£»tal .Consonant exc. r. mutton — mvtn. prison = prizn. bottle = botl. vessel — vesl. discussion = diskvsn. marshal = masl. but: harren = barzn. The same principle holds good in certain phrases this and that = this'n that. hot and cold = hot'n köAd. tha^ will do = thcet'l dm. fish and soup = fisn sü«p. Exceptions: ^ j0~. re) Between tvvo I's or two n's the vowel cannot be lost, but becomes 2. linen. (i) In learned words: omen. hymen, e = e. y) In such words as: London, sen/ence, absence, the vowel = a. Loss of it would bring so many consonants together that the word could not be pronounced. 2) After k and g. reckon = rekn. dragon = dragn. 3) After lipconsonants. often = ofn. weapon = wepn. Note: The vowel i sometimes maintains itself as 3 or i (pupil, dev/1), and is never lost in the ending ile, where it is pronounced ciïl or tl. agile, docile, fertile, etc. But also in the other cases mentioned under / the vowel is of ten heard (=2) especially .after s and i. § 118. II. Vowels and diphthongs are left intact: 1) Fnll diphthongs x) are seldom affected by want of stress: com'pownd, en'voy, twi'light. 2) In learned words and words not used by the people, the vowel remains uncliange^ pa'thos, ab'stract, in'sect, enthusirtsm^ 3) In compounds the two elements of which have clearly preserved their original meaning, the unstrest vowel remains unchanged. tea'cwp, outlet, earthquake, inland. 4) Under strong secondary stress2) in closed 1) ïhe full diphthongs are found in: boy, my, now. 2) See § 40. syllables,1) esp. in the negative prefix un, the vowel remains. èxpedit'ion, constitu'tion, wnkind', tinfit'. 5) Long a before the main stress, remains un changed. parta'ke, artil'lery, sarcas'tic, transform', translate'. ) The ending ate of verbs of more syllables. to in'dicate, to recip'rocafe, etc. The length may be partly due to the secondary stress that falls on the syllable. But the a was first pronounced long in the past tense and the participles, where we should have got a succession of weak vowels, if we had pronounced a = d. indicated would have been: in'dihtïd. To avoid this, the a was made long (= ë'). § 11!». III. V owels and half diphthongs have their sonority reduced, esp. in syllables just before and just after the main stress: Short vowels become weak vowels esp. 9 (See § 122). Long vowels and half diphthongs become short vowels. These short vowels may further become weak vowels. •) A closed syllable is one in which the vowel is followed by one consonant at least. When the vowel is followed by one cons. + liquid or by sp or st it is not closed, because the two consonants go with the following syllable. a-brupt. a-spire. Closed syllables can preserve the original vowel-sound much better than open ones. § 120. The weak vowels are: I. ï : lady, receive. II. li : vah when unstrest becomes i or 9. But: village, a = i owing to dé, which is pronounced in almost the same part of the mouth as ï. ma/ntain', ai = 9 before the n. However, it is impossible to give fixed rules here. § 122. In unstrest syllables: ê' becomes ï village, Sundav. or d. especially before n, though here too the / may be heard: moun'tam, mamtain' Note: The ending ate: a) has a = ë< in Verbs. to imitate. See § 18. b) has a — 9, or a sound intermediate between ï and e in Adjectives: fortunate. c) may be pronounced with the sound of the Verb or the sound of the Adjective in Nouns: candidate. p becomes t: receive, determination. ö" becomes o. admonit'ion, philosop'hic. In prefixes, and in open syllables of familiar words this o further becomes 3. police = p9lï's'. collect = k9lekt'. correct — C9rekt'. In the mouths of careless speakers it is even entirely lost: police becoming p'lvs', etc. ü" becomes li: value. Just as o in the preceding case, this ü further becomes 9 in prefixes and open syllables: to-day = t9 dl'. to sit = t9 sit. a remains before the main stress. artis'tic, trans'late. becomes 9 after the main stress: dollar. v becomes 9. conf/rmation. ó ,, 0. «Mthor'ity. <£ ,, 9. Frenchman 1). ') There is, therefore, no ilifference in pron. between ,,a Frenchman" and ,,two Frenchmcn"; between ,,a gentlemnn" and „two gentlemfn". But the plural: gentlemen has e — e when the word is used to address a company: Ladics and Gentlemen! e becomes g regularly, Dutchmen1), saikr. „ i before the main stress before m or n. enquire, embody. e 1), before the main stress bef. other consonants than m or n. 'spectator, st'nsation. 2) before s. /^ ^ restkss. f / I j i r-fi > ' » a V mquire, pity. ,, 3. se] dom. >> u usefnl But mostly this ïï is further reduced to ?. .. 9- swffice, support, diffic»lt. Note: In unstrest enclings such as: tion, tial, sion etc.. 1) si and sit are s after a consonant: expansion, sensual. but l after a vowel. invasion, pleasure. But: Asia = ê's». 1) See Note on page 84. 2) li, ci are always s. condition = kgndisn. superficial = siüpgfisl. § 123. Just as syllables in a word, so words in a sentence can uccur with weak stress. In this case the vowels undergo the same changes as thosedescribed above: The principal of these words are: v in must, some, but. us. He must go ' = hï> mgs gö«. Have some more? - Hav s?m móg? Give us the book! = giv gs etc. He came, but in vain bgt.. .. i> in her, were, sir. I saw her boy You were glad You are wrong Sir d in are. They are old = gr ce in that, has, had, have, am, can, as, at, an, and. An old man —- gn the boy that saw it = thgt etc. = w»-- = wg... = ygro/j', S»1). ') But: ,,Sir, you're wrong", would be: Sr> because the opening word of the sentence is always emphatic. è in their, there. There was nobodv there = tha thé. Their names are forgotten = ths o in not, of, from, on. The book of John = iv. It lies on the table = on. But: What's it made of? = ov. Because of is not weakstrest here. ó in or, nor, for. Good or bad = d. It's for you = fa. But: Who's that for? —- fo. § 124. The above chapter does not pretend to be more than a feeble attempt at describing the values of vowels in unstrest positions. The subject is an uncommonly difficult one and can not be studied satisfactorily, without careful listening to educated speakers in England itself. A good deal more remains to be said about the amount of stress, the neighbouring consonants, Cockneyisms etc. etc. but this would lie bevond the scope of the present work. Chapter X. Spelling pronunciation. § 125. We saw in § 79 c that the pronunciation of the ch in Woolwich, Greenwich, Haruich = dz. This pronunciation is due to a phonetic lawthatoperatecl more than 300 years ago. But the majority of speakers do not know anything about this law, and as they are accustomed to give the pronunciation ts to the letters ch, they often do so in the case of Woolwich, Greenwich etc, unable as they are to account for the rfi-pronunciation. This is what we call a spelling-pronunciation. Again, the vowel in the word son = v. Why the p-sound should be written o, can be explained only by a reference to Middle-English. Suffice it to say, that there was a verv good phonetic reason for it. As in the preceding case, very few people are aware of this fact. And as they always attach the o-sound to the o-symbol, they would have created a new spelling-pronunciation, if they had changed the pronunc. of son from svn into son. Son, however, has not changed its vowel-sound, nor is it ever likely to do so. But the i?-sound has actually been made into the o-sound in the wav described above in a great number of words, e.g. hover, constable etc. etc. See § 50 last part. § 126. When, therefore, some old, forgotten, phonetic law has caused, what must appear to modern eyes, a discrepancy between symbol and sound, the tendency is for the modern speaker to set it right by conforming the sound to the symbol. This is what we call spelling-prommciation. § 127. Hundreds of words in modern English owe their pronunciation to this tendency to make spelling and sound agree. For centuries the tendency has been at work and we still find it at work in our twentieth century. Tennyson's famous line: „Things seen are mightier than things heard" finds its application here as well. No Englishman in his ordinary conversation makes any the slightest difference between lord and land, or between core and caw. But it you show him the words written on a slip of paper and ask hi m to pronounce them for you, he will say that lord and laud do differ, and he will do his best to let you hear this (purely imaginary) difference. It is a wellknown fact that the Englishman is unable to pronounce a consonantal r after a vowel. If he could, it is my iïrm opinion that we should long since have had the spelling-pronunciation lórd (=-- lord), hórd (= board) etc., judging from the horror many Englishman evince on being told that the pronunciation of lord = that of laud, etc. They simply call this pron. of lord vulgar, and yet .... pronounce the word no otherwise in their ordinary conversation. They are only misled by the eye. Chapter XI. Assimilation. § 130. By assimilation we mean that a certain position of the vocal organs either 1) continues too long, or. 2) begins toe early. 1) It continues too long. This is the case in English with the s of the plural and the 3rd person singular. When the word ends in a voiced sound, the voice is held in the production of the s. In other words the s is voiced. beds — bedz. he lies = laiz. 2) It begins too early. cupboard Voice, instead of beginning with b, already sets in with/). Hence the wordispronounced: kvbbsd. blackgttard on the same principle becomes blceggdd. husband — hvzbsnd. obstacle = opstokl. gooseberry = gt't"zb?rï. raspberry — razbvrt. absolute = cepsiljütl) handkerchief = haqkstsif. Chapter XII, § 131. Here are some words that are often mispronounced by the foreigner. proverb o = o. envi'ronment i = aï. Joseph o — ö". her'oism e = e. alternate a = o or ó. pre'science = prvsdns. on'erous o = o. se'ries = svrvz or svrivz. phaeton ae = ê'-i. ad'jectival i = aï. solder = solda or sódd. isolation i = i or aï. caoutchouc aou — au or u. cuirass cui = kwi or kyw. ') But absolve = rebzolv'. Hence it falls under 1). The same with observe = obzvv'. THE "J. VAN BOEKHOVEN" PRESS. UTRECHT. '~ksieó&Mèt- van e/wi THE PRONUNCIATION OF ENGLISH BY P. FUN VAN DRAAT. UTRECHT W LEIJDENROTH VAN BOEKHOVEN 1 9 09. The pronunciation of English. THE "J. VAN BOEKHOVEN" PRESS. UTRECHT. THE PRONUNCIATION OF ENGL^W-^^ «*» «4# BY P. FIJN VAN DRAAT. ©• UTRECHT W. LEIJDENROTH VAN BOEKHOVEN 1 9 09. Chapter I. Preliminary Remarks. § 1. In this book the following symbols will be used a = a of French patte. cb — a „ English pan. e = e ,, pen. i = i „ pin. 0=0 ,, „ not. u = u „ book. v = u „ ,, nut. ' = y „ lady. o = o „ „ fellow. ït = u ,, „ wite. ^ — er „ „ father. aï = i „ „ wtwe. aw = o\v „ „ «ozf. o/ = oy „ ,, èoy. ë' = a „ „ ««me. j> = e „ „ seem. ö" = o „ home. ü« =u „ „ tune. é = a „ English care. v = i „ sir. 0 = Cl ,, ,) uil. a —— 3. »j )j cart. y = ch „ German ick. s = sh „ English shecr. >1 = ng „ „ hang. 1 = zj. Description of Sounds. Sound heard in^Btftch ik ga naar den Haag in affectejJ^speech. intermediate between Dutch pen and Dutch pin. as heard in German ich. pretty much as in Dutch hok. Observe that it does not matter in the least what consonant follows. The o is the same in: not. on. from. etc. difficult to describe. A sound betw een o Dutch ol pot and u of Dutch zoet. a sound heard only in English. The a of the Dutch word hak is not unlike it. the sound of Dutch ik. pretty much as in French homme. the u sound pronounced very rapidly. the neutral vowel; the sound of v pronounced rapidly. a sound intermediate between Dutch aai and ei. a <• = u = v = ü J = ai = au — a of French patte + u of fellow. the Jirst element musl not be made into ce. oi = o of Dutch hok + ï. ë> = the e of Engl. men, lens^thened, + i. it is a mistake to make the first element = e of Dutch zweet. ï' = i of Eng. sit, lengthened, + ï. ö» = o oi German Sohn + u. it is a mistake to make the first element = o of Dutch boot. tin = u of book + a second u, very short. c = e of Dutch zet, lengthened. T> = a lengthened (approximatelj*). ó = o of Dutch och, lengthened. a = unlike the a of Dutch vader, is pronounced far back in the mouth. Some of the above sounds cannot be accurately described and should be heard, in order to be correctly reproduced; especially u, v, ' o, ïi, 9, v, and a. § 2. The letter r is sometimes a vowel, sometimes a consonant. ^ When it is a vowel, it has the sound of the neutral vowel 3. It is a consonant before a vowel and between two vowels of the same or of two succeeding words. ring rose before a vowel. \ery hero between two vowels of the same word. here isl iC between two vowels of two —s succeeding words. x) It is a vowel after a vowel: a. In unstrest syllables, the r + preceding vowel = 3. sailoy. dolle»', carpenter. b. In strest syllables: 1) at the end. r = nutte after T>. sir = sf>. c = ^or nutte after a or ö. iar = fa or fa?. for = fó or fó3. The tendency in present day English is to say: fó, not fó?. fa, ,, fas. , . , 7 , 2) before a consonant, r = 91 except after the a, the v, and the ö sound, in which case r is mute. beard = bhd. but: card = kad. J 1 f j and: lord = lód. r >) There is a tendency in present day English to make the r a vowel in this positicn. § 3. f A diphthong is a combination of two vowels uttered f in the same impulse of breath. When the stress falls on the first of the two vowels, we call the diphthong a falling diphthong; when the stress falls on the second of the two vowels we call the dighthong a rising diphthong. In English all diphthongs are falling. But see §7^ Xote 1. Diphthongs are divided into1: 1) Murmur-diphthongs, i.e. those of which the second element is the vowel r h ere = hw {air = tó 2) half diphthongs, of which there are four: ê< of name ïi „ seem ö" ,, home w „ tune The reader will observe: a. that in all four the first vowel-sound is long or protracted, whilst the second vowel-sound lasts hardly longer than a single instant. b. that in all four, when you have produced the first vowel, you have but to raise the lower jaw a little further to obtain the second vowel-sound. 3) full diphthongs, of which there are three: o) as in boy. ai as in wine. au as in now. § 4. A vowel has its alphabetical sound, when it is pronounced as when we say the alphabet. The alphabetical sound, therefore of a = ê> e — v i = a o = ö« u - ju« Xote that in every instance we get a diphthong. § 5. With a few exceptions to be mentioned later on, a vowel can have its long alphabetical sound only in strong-strest positions. § (i. When we say that a vowel or a consonant is long oi short we refer to its duration. I. Of two consonants the 2nd is always shoit: buiW. buiU. the lst is long before a voiced sound: bui/d. hand. but short before a voiceles sound: bui/t. miwt. In. 0 • § 9. The letter r has great influence 011 a preceding vowel or diphthong, but only when it (the r) stands at the end of the word or is followed by e mute; y ' . ■ '' in other words, when r is a vowel (§ 2). An r, single ru/y < or doublé, standing between two vowels (that < t is: an r that is^sr consonant) has no influence on ^ the preceding/vowelj ir~{ »*>' ^ ' ^ ^ a. On short vowels: compare: . ^ ***' l i V ' cal and car (with a) but carry = a set „ her ( „ v) „ fcron = * A,. >V sil ■■ s"< - ■■ spir" -' J-J< cut „ cur ( „ v) ,, curry =v ' . «of „ «or ( „ ó) „ d**uUm»r= o i • ^ B. On diphthongs: compare: " ' ^ ^ V | , t- V' 1 name = ë-: and care = kê? I ■$' I»/' ✓ 2 seem = v and Iterc - hls. « ( i! 1^ <3 fine = (ü and fire =(Ja3. j) "*tc ] 4 bone = ö« and bore = bö(d). S 5 tune = w» and pure =[pjÓ3^ ^u r ;* 6 bound = aw and flower = see below § 15. We see that in this case the influence of r is still greater than on short vowels. For: i l u 1) All diphthongs lose their second element. 5 I 2) All diphthongs (exc. no. 2, but see § 11) i Ij change their first element into a t broader vowel, i. e. a vowel pronouneed with thé mouth wider open. — 'mV^J i . . ' O j ( V rv-^i «ö • in police etc. See § 43. o = o in gone, shone. = v in done etc. See § 50. u = ü in prove etc. See § 52. a) For influence of r see §§ 9—15. b) When the e mute is dropped, because a derivative-ending is added, the vowel a) keeps its alphabetical sound, if the derivative-ending begins with a vowel. arrivé arrival. Except before the endings 1) Sate, the past tense of to sit is mostly written sat. 2) vase is also heard t/ë»-. Notes: . ity ify. See § 17. j r ' jj) becomes short, if the derivative ending begins with a consonant. wide width. wise wisdom. Except: ninth from nine , aïl with the ■whilst „ while alphabetical wholly ,, whole \ sound Query. Whv has the a in vilkge not got its alphabetical sound? ' III. Before one consonant + le or re. trtble. b/ble. ogre. Exceptions: treble. triple. - /r t ) > IV. Before one consonant + e or i -(- another vowel. rapier, periocl. «theist 1). Exceptions: 1) i en y are always short. idiot. myriad. **• ^ 2) In the following words the vowel is short: clarion, battalion, valiant, Italian, national, rational, companion, spamei Daniël, Spaniard, chariot, retaliate, poniard, pageant2), precious, discretion, special. tja. *) th, though in writing we use two symbols, is in reality one consonant. 2) the a of pageanl is also pronounced with its alphabetical sound. Before another vowel. chaos, ckary. v- An h betvveen the two vowels makes no difference vehement. § 17. All vowels are short: 1) In closed syllables, i. e. before one or more consonants. For exceptions see under the different vowels, and see § 9. ' ^ -) Before the endings ic. ical. isli. The stress is on the syllable just before these endings. relish. public1). wj*** But: u is long in: cubic. music. rubric. tunic. and the stress is on the antepenult -) in: Arith'metic. pol'üic. her'etic. lu'natic ar senic. cath'olic. rhet'oric. chol'eric. Ar'abic. ') \\ e indicate the stress by placing a mark after the strong-strest syllable. If the vowel in the strong-strest syllable is short, we place the mark after the consonant: rel'ish. But if the vowel in the strong-strest syllable has its alphabetical sound, the mark is put immediately after it: pe'riod. 2) See note 2 on page 19. -i t {.fan,. VVV» ' f nrJ *»- li- ,* UaM - Octvl / - ]/1 L 3) Before one cons. + the endings ity and ify. I The stress is just before these endings: (f gravity, divinity. But u is always long: opportunity and the vowel is also long in: glörify, nöiify, mrity. Chapter III. , y- .#T' The letter A. —(/Vy- (H / / \ § 18. A has its alphab. sound besides the cases mentioned ly 'cljIZvo) in § 10. Mn ' . h _ ■>» f I 11 ^1) before nge and ste./ 0j(/^ c (JJ+UJ 'N <^ange-~ hdte-Jt&&— "y sjXt i Except only: caste kast. fr*™/ A \ anScr (u*ith y and master (with d) are 1 V IrfZo really no exöeptions to this rule, because {w^1 they are n/ft derived from words ending Kwppt' aratnr and seu' iitor-wjih-u^ V.''.'*' 1""' . 3) In the words: uXjl, Charlemagne (pr. salme>n'). tUJMcu Champagne (pr. ssmpe'n') iyU«é&-, Ca^ndee i ,\~t Lkambnc. S^aÊ l"yiv*r i) chamber, half penny (pr. he>'p3nt). ancienl. bass. , pastry. ' 1 4) In the mistrest ending ate of verbs. (See § 5 and § 118.) ~ ■ •*": ' >«.'1 candidate. ■M < unfor'tunate. But see § 122. Chj N ote. All these words, verbs, nouns and adjectives, have the stress on the antepe'nult.2) 1) Americans leave the u out in words ending in onr. Hence they writp favnv linnnv T4-V>« J.1 _ 1 —viv. iu me Dame vvdy iiiev cnange tne enaing tre into ter and write een ter, theater instead of een tre, theatre, Lastly they do not doublé the / in unstrest syllables of certain verbs and write: trave/ing, where the English write travetfing. But these practises should not be imitated. 2) antepenult: ante = before — pen = almost, cf peninsula = almost an island. -uit = the last. Hence: antepenult = before almost the last = the last but two, r m cf: im'itute unfor'tunate. Exc. «) /o remonstrate; fa extivpaU. k ta^-eontemjüate', ~kr- tuiiie-nlniltJl Nj £_ which fini ii/>ir»-t)c pronounced l~ —j with the stress on the penült. b) the adjëctive;- ..jgnsum'mate, which, however, can ülso be pronounced: t • . Ji + , I > con summate. ^ A + "^' , , Oif/fMï 19. .4 = «. n fttAv \ x» 1) beforeV k. ri ■ "^C-r-o u- v. frtoxn-x t-J I .t. gnw/. dance. gr aft. h ", —~- ,v- k» ikL -<+éa&e l'.UK *.utipc/- mnt. cant. ass, scantM. „ ■MtiL *%& «jSPKgÖJ i) in the ending mand. / *yLu-£ / — Afc.. i' ,. 1 ,i ^ ^ to command. rrJ^i-JL' »*vj) 5)/n thy^s> mw*.A^wu . f / , rather. father.,stander, can't. shan't. i^Ai \ - **,. u-v^ ïi/aI m j ^ntil a century ago the words mentioned lft>.»- *• 4 // - under 3) and 4) were pronounced , ,,tk ic' with a — ce. This older sound may / j , still be heard esp. of late years. J>»',vAj § 20. /I = o. ? V- ^ :ss=—11'"" 1) In yacht (ch is mute) and c/ia/> (= kaak) which is also sometimes written cAo/>. 1/ *•1 '* But chap = boy, fellovv, has a — ce. , ^1» 2) Betvveen ze< and consonant, h.f.v«o l ze'/m/. quantity. j 1 I. ' vM t .A..h Exc:. a) between w and >• a = ó- dIQ 1 y^T j > lU War' Wart- \ Query: Why has warren a = o? j> . «f-" . , i \ 4 l'"*' I^rMAw» I vWl40vj| (A/ X^ i l*Xv\ - w ') There is no longer any difference in préh. between wnss = multitude and mnss = service in the R. C. Church. * ƒ}) between w and x. g. ng. ck\ a = cb. wax, twang, wag, thwack. y) in wajt, a = a. b) waste = ë» and water = ó. ft# § 21. A = ö. 1) between w and r. (See § 20). ^ 2) bef ore 11. ld. It. IL Is. w. (In Ik the l is r^iute). ^ all, bald, halt, walk, false, saw.' -J'-O- ^ ^ ^ h Query: Why has wallow a = o? !l dC ^ Why has allow' a — j? (,a •1 Note that solt. halt. halter, canjilse-be pronounced \l l' v •* j i ^ y wifn a =^o. ju I Li v\AV i '(iAj ,c; Excebtions: balcony,, shall, shalt, Pall-mall xuj , . oiüuxm -a •*(> § 22. .4 = in: parliament. ■ [ * fjo i carriage. P i i v vV" marriage. cW0^'' diamond. victuals. (c is also mute; pr.: vit'sis). miniaiure. extraordinary. (Also heard with a. See § 129.) § 23. A. = e in: oxprcooi&ft-: - -ikmk ymt!l). ^-the-e-xciaination: fattcyf /TV; d^a / — (TJo'yv 3)-Qftcn iftthe-word; can. njL'1*--'^ S 23a. For a in unstrest endings See § 122. / /) ' S faOHM»» § 24. Ao = ü. , Al+L* It occurs only in: /i *.l j gaoZ and gaofer. z£UsÏ4a £. M JU < '- 'Jj) which in sound and sense are identical with / \ ,. jail and j ai Ier. prison turnkey. Note: The word gaol should not be confused with goal. § 25. Au — aw — ö. j I ) sauce. saw. *J . ■ J ' 'i.u y r' ^ j Exceptions: 1) to gauge. with au = ê' 1 2) cauliflower, sausage, laurel, laudanum, j . t/' { with au = o. . tU* Ax^therefore in: he thanked me; thanking him etc. tƒ>*ƒ ó) laugh, laughter, draugkt, with au = a. 4) au bef. nt is heard mostly as ö ,but also as a. I 'j. , .. to haunt, daiin^vaunt etc. aunt is ijpxfa exclusively with a. 5) au = ö" in: ! L C-t'. ^/t.. j/lt/t— hautboy. i § 26. Ai = ay = b laid. say. Exceptions: 1) Before r. ai = ê. fair. j u-~j 2) raillery with ce. (rr*vi tvv Uvii ;,(~L plaid ,, ce or regular. See § 12!l. v-6ü./,l plait „ ce or regular. „ § 129. sani ,, e. says „ e. waistcoat „ e or regular. See § 129. wainsctfcft „ e ,, „ „ § 129. again „ e „ „ „ § 129. against „ e „ „ „ § 129. 3) qitay with v. 4) aisle (s mute) and ayj?)(= yes) with ai. , v I Note: aye (ever) is regular. jl/ fi i r; / iA. 5) laity is 3 syllables le-i-ty. dais is 2 syllables dë-is, or regular. 6) Saint, as a noun or as a verb, is regular. Who is now a saint in Heaven. (Longfellow.) Your sainted mother. But when it is an attributive adjective, it is pronounced as sin or s'n. The church of Saint Peter. Note that in this case Saint has almost lost all stress. Note also that in the family names: Saint John (pr. ~Siridzvn) Saint Leger (pr. Sil'indza) the old unstrest form of Saint has taken the stress. Of late years these words also begin to be pronounced regularly (See § 129). 7) In unstrest syllables, ai is heard with the /-sound. mamtain'. moun'tam. Note. The pronunciation of ai in unstrest syllables as è' should be carefully avoided. Sie § 114 ff. Chapter IV. The letter E. § 27. E has its alphab. sound besides the cases mentioned in § 1(5. '>n$, < is I 1) In the endings e and es of Greek and Latin j J ***•***>& words 3 - / , * -M, ^ 'W ƒ have e cr v. -£«">£, b) Stress on 2nd syllable e = i. to present' to resound' (s = 2. compare § 27). to resign' [s = z „ § 27). jJ^ Éj ^ 'y to reform' „ §27. L; eiv.f ■ Note: It often happens that a verb has exactly J. it-iu aa(: 'A the same form as its corresponding """ , + I .iv wb*!. f" and the sound of the e in the prefix. Comp.: , /! to rebel' a reb'el. / / T j ^ to present' a pres'ent. "* ' ^v" , the bres'ent time. ' v «Wt , WwPt c) Stress on •'5rd syllable e — e. v * to recollect' v '' ' 1 resurrec'tion. V\ ffJ H «&M .-v^ K {■ • ft |v|vlUt<, Except: demarcation. dehortation. <», devixtion. deportation. which all have e = v. d) Stress on 4th syllable e = i. emancipation. Except: «U t •. edification with e = e. 'j ^ ( § 29. E is mute 1) In the ending ed. he as&ed, loved. Except in the following cases, in which ed = id. i 1 i , a) after t and d. haunterf hand^v/ Ia- Uvl j- uj wvm! 9a Mlv^a! uanaea. b) before ly and ness. jmUa . oUotA-^S , And 1 lie so composedly now in my bed. Lu'.itj jj, ^ _ • , ^cuvvn • (Poe). *) in the adjectives: ^Ut• i'-U^Ï., »vV cursed Jcrut^hed) crookedhooked) aged, I f (vl mggedjpeakedjideuced, blcssed~ dogged, ( jagged\ ragged. wicke^-metched, naked, 15wU( (7 L{j' hi ^' belove$\ leamed\ 4 ut [ei N. ^ . ■ . § 33. Ea = ï'. (A sea. tea. « V) Exceptions: . ü, , • a) ea = ë> in great. break, steak. yea. But: breakfast — brekf?st. b) ea = "e in bear. to bear. pear. to wear. to swear. to tear. c) ea = v before r -f cons. ilM-' pearl. heard. ^ But: heart. i hearth With ea = a. hearkenx) ^ beard i T , With ea = i'. afeardx) \ l) This word is now never used except in higher style. ^tAjttbl^ H). ***'111 ^ = l> in key. § 35. Ei = è' ƒ reign. rein. neighbour. Except: " \ 1) = ii in: aUu C? $ A11 verbs in eive: \ (jtsi conceive receive, etc. <4^- \ And i»: v ii v seize. plebeian, leisure, (n)either. Bilt. leisure ...also with o>' e. ( \ (n)either also with ei = ai1). £ U - . in ^ \ = a' 'n sleiS,lL eider.' \) = ê beiore r. heir., AL.fAt \ ') The pron. uiths is more common than Pt ha. wgr o^\ (^u^ y-tVi 4, 5) = i in unstrest endings: forfeit. foreign. Raleigh. *) sovereign, See §122- Hl § 36. Eo = ïi in peoplc. °u in yeoman. tj .. e in leopard, jeopardy, GeoffreyJ^Jf W i ( ' (tJL*v'j 3 in unstrest endings. luncheon, thincheon. ü" in feod, now mostly spelled: feud. f* \ ^ 4rl fc ' i , ^ , § 37. Ee = ï> see. v ' vv Except in ^ (is s ' breeches j • / -'' J. threepence j with ee = i. ' t-u. I \ i been ' /J The last 2 words are also heard regular. See § 129. c, ' ' u- #1 ('t '*v § 38. Eu — ew = ü" -C-cv-u^ Europe. dew. J iVofe that the /-element is lost 1) atter r: crae>. '■ < K'""" 2) after cons. + /: è/eie>. ^ru-w-o-w' Ew = ö" in s/tew (also written s/toze>) s/rac ( „ „ strow) sent) >) Pron. *ÓK. ^ (%o¥^ \ ^ ^ Vcvt* \ Observe that to sew has not the same meaning as to sow. Also that a sewer means riool. In this case we have two pronunciations again, viz. sii3 and só(j). See § 14. § 39. Eau = ö« in beau, fiortmanteau, bureau. = ü» in beauty, beautiful, beauteous. § 40. We saw in § 28 that the sound of the e in certain prefixes depends upon the place where the main stress falls. This statement requires some elucidation. It is a well-known fact that modern poetry depends partly on rhyme, hut chiefly on the recurrence at regular intervals of a strong-strest syllable. If we indicate a strong-strest syllable by a dash (—) and a weak-strest one by a semicircle (^) the line „In all my wand'rings round this world of care" will read as follows: Whereas the line: „But our love it was stronger by far than the love" will be: This regular recurrence of a strest syllable is called rhythm. Novv just as rhythm is an indispensable element of poetry, it is found in words, i. e. we have a regular alternation of strest and unstrest syllables. It is common to say that in the word generosity the third syllable (-os) has the stress. W'hen we listen attentively we shall find that this syllabe has indeed the main stress, but also that the lst and 5th syllables have a certain, though less amount of, emphasis not to be heard on the 2nd and 4th: Thus generosity In most English words there is a regular alternation of a strest and an unstrest syllable. Sometimes, however, the strest returns after two unstrest ones, e. g. in many substantives ending in at ion, contamination. edification. Let it further be remembered (See § 119 ff) that in a strest syllable we can have an e-sound or an ë> sound, but as a rule no t-sound, which is found regularly in unstrest syllables. Keturning to the rule stated in § 28, we find: a) pres'ent e strong-strest = e. b) rebel' e unstrest = i. c) recollect' main-stress on third, secondary stress on lst; e = as in pres'ent e. d) determation = ^ ^ e unstrest = i. The only exception is edification. It is formed from to ed'ify with e = e. and has preserved the pronunciation of the e in the prefix. § 41. I has its alphab. sound, besides the cases mentioned 1) In the words: isle, *) island 2), viscount.3) w ,.„*■) tV~ «J indict *), pint, Christ, climb, Chapter V The letter I. in § 16: Hu. whilst. H «*«*»*. Note, that: Christian and Christmas have i = i. ]) s is mute. 2) 5 is mute. 3) s is mute. 4) c is mute. '* / ' ^ Üy *a> 2) Before finaj &"■ gn. jjJtr nd,. l , [ t sigh. sign. sight. bind. wild. u!> Except: Sm L-eLt^ build, gnild, gild, wind. i which have the i sound. In poetry, when the rhyme requires it, ^ wind is also heard as: wahid. ij Derivatives keep the same vowel sound as (\ the word from which they are derived. , I I . y / /; V / r sigh Pres. Partic. sighing both with at. L y kind comparative hinder both with aï. Exc. children with i. wilder ness „ i. bewilder ,, i. But:'" hinder, kindie, signal, benignant, all with i, are no exceptions. For (.. . 'Ua-c^ , hinder is not derived from hind. kindie „ „ „ „ kind. signal ,, ,, ,, „ sign. benignant ,, „ ,, ,, benign. § 42. Observe:' white with aï. Whitsuntide with t pious ,, „ im'pious „ i. finite „ „ in'fïmte „ ï and i respectively. shire ,, ,, Yorkshire etc. with d or sometimes ï. life plur: lives ,, f, rf'^ m § 43. I = ï' in a number of French words that have preserved the stress on the same syllable as in French: antique, chagrin, chemise, caprice, czarni^ c i fntionD ««/«'«« marine, maeazine. - /U v» b—, , v , r ./ K J, .. ■ machine, pkysique, piqué, police, ravme, / flUÜH» ;. 0 routine, valise, unique, invalid. la2L' .• / >i r r# rq# iJLlUw}) Note !) Invalid is now mostly prononnced with . /' , the stress on the first syllable. It is: t*/v 1) a noun, meaning a sickly person. ') live - opposite: de ad: I have caught two live hares. 2) alive - opposite: de ad. Used only predicatively: he is alive. 3) longlived and shovtlived are formed from the noun life and mean. having a long (short) life. Other adjectives formed in the same way are: a red-haired man = having red hair. a moneyed man = having money. a stringed instrument = having strings. Stringed is not: the past participle of to string. Longlived and shortlived, therefore, ought to have the a/-sound, but the fact that they are formed from life is now often overlooked, chieflv because they have a v and not an f, and English speakers, connecting the words with the verb to live often make the i short. to live with i ^ he lives „ i Adj .live1) „ al ,, alive2) ,, ,, livelong „ i longlived3) ,, (it or with i. shortlived3) „ „ ,, „ i- 2) An adj., meaning sickly. In this case it should not be confused with the adj. inval'id (i = ï) meaning not valid. Note 2) capric'ious has i = i. o* mar'iner ,, i = i. » ■ ' •**-> . § 44. I = v before r. f \ mW" Sir. bird. But spirit and irritate have i = i. Why? S 45. I is mute in: Clt business, venison. Salisbury. ~ For words like basin, evil etc. See § 117. For words like Asia, station See § 120. § 46. Ie = aï at the end of a word. f> die- vie- (U+A k . = p in the middle of a word, when it dóes not 'ft U) arise from y (See § 47). i chief. grief. <■ A«rr u. ^ Excepl: Vu- ,- > 1) in friend ie = e.. LyvWt-2) in mischief, neckerchief, handkerchief, sieve, . . > ( t t le = 1■ 3) in unstrest endings ie = 1-3 (2 syllables). |»Av*fcvw tx* Umk rfcAA.AJ lil I . CrfWt/'U*/ < j i camer, ortei, s/>awje/. /yw |g, ii«.0 /,«.«, ! *#£?>* ' M*TTp />V> rf"'**" ) ' /t- *. - - ^ fa,i. L~o "M A< 4) ie — ai -s (2 syllables), before t en tv. a l VA \ ""^X —^ f4*" 1 *" diet. anxiety. variety. .invih» r' $*** ^Vv ,vjyZ and *n the words: fiery. brier. cliënt, science. § 47. Ie arising from y bas the same sound as this y. enemies plural of enemy ie and y = ï-, allies' „ „ ally ie and y = ai. Except in the following cases when ie becomes two syllables: In ordinal numbers: ' twentieth. ie = ï-g. tv i r 2) In the degrees of comparison. ' happier, happiest, ie = 1-3. 3) In the 2nd person sing. pres. Indic. of verbs in y. thou triest ie = ai-o. 4) In the 3rd person sing. pres. Indic. in th: he trieth. ie — ai-s. § 48. Ieu = Iew = ü«. in adieu en view. (iW Note that lieutenant = leften'snt. and messieurs = mes'hz. r 3) = tvvo syllables: alphab. u + 3, before l, n, r, t. duel, fluent, duet. QBut see § 70. , [{va § <4. ui has the alphab. !*-sound. But see § 70. . j suit. fruit, bruit. ^ Except: _ 1) ui = i in: build, built, biscuit, circuit, conduit, guinea. 2) ui = wi in: cuirass'. lan'guish. I 3) ui = two syllables in: ruin, (in)tuition. » •4) In English the letter q is invariably follovved by m, therefore, represents the te-sound. The i that follows is regular: quilt = kwilt. quiet = kwaï-zt. 5) When g stood before an e or an i, they often inserted a u af ter the g to denote that it had the sound as in go. In words therefore beginning with gui as: yguild, guilt, gUile, guise, & <■<; <■<.» f*. the gu represents the g sound of go and the i is regular. § 75. uy = at. buy. Guy. §76. uoy. In this group the u = w or is mute; oy is regular. buoy. buoyant. These are the only words in which the group uoy occurs. Chapter VIII. The Consonants. § 77. B. = mute 1) when final after m and in deriva-rtv^ tions dumb. 2) before final t and in derivations doubt. § 90. L. L is mute: 1) in folk, yolk, Lincoln,x) could, would, should, Holborn 2). 2) af ter a in lm, If, Iv, Ik. calm, calf, talk, falcon. Exc.: in valve en realm. -« £**. § 91. M. , f ,, v M calls for no remark. ^ x VH! § 92. JV. VKy/ 2V = n, the dental nasal as in Dutch m. But when ^ a guttural follows, the w becomes the gutteral nasal //, that is to say, is pronounced as ng in sing/^ uncle, anguish. ca^j^U < t f /■ »n ^ ' J /Ho we ver, the n of the prefixes in and con ' ' , —mostly remains the dental nasal. income, conquer 3) * r^ ,Cvv^ But not in: \ /-y%v- congregate and congress. \— ') pron. Linkan. 2) ,, Höuban. 3) conquer is also heard with n = >j. f (, l ML JUmj t/ «a Cv ^ J § 93. N is mute finally after m in che same syllable. autumn. solemn When it becomes medial, it remains mute 1) before endings beginning with a cons. solemnly. 2) before inflectional endings. ^ damning. § 94. Ng has three different sounds. I. The regular sound is that of Dutch zang: ng has this sound finally: sing. long. and keeps this sound in derivatives: singer. Exc. in the comparatives and superlatives of long. slrong and young. in which ng husthe sound describedunder II. II. The above sound + g of go. Symbol This sound is heard: 1) Medially, in wcrds where its medial position is not due to some ending. anger = a/jer. finger = But autumnal soleninity etc. have sounded H. 3) in kiln. i these words are not derived from ang and fing. 2) in longer, stronger, younger. longest, strongest, youngest. III. ng = n + dz, medially in French words: matiger, stranger. § 95. P. P is mute: 1) before s psalm, pseudo. 2) between m and t. empty, consumption. 3) between ni and k. bumpkin 4) in the words: receipt, corps, raspbirry, pneumatic, Deptford, Hampden, Ptolomy, sempstress, This last word is now mostly written seamstress. For its pronunc. see § 33 and § 129. § 96. Ph = /. physic. 4) In the verbs: 1) to promise, to practise, to debase, to loose, to loosen. a i / 2) ending in -ease. to increase. U £<•<- Except to ease, to please, to lease. •5) to use in the sense of be accustomed1). er 0 S is voiceless: i ' ' * ƒ ,•"£*»'' 1) Initially. v 1 ' . 1 -cl ■ 7 /li side. see. Jl^t , ><■ *<■< "-i~/ ■ This initial s remains voiceless when, owing to some prefix, it becomes medial. aside. oversee. V--Ö * ^ r Except: ; " —r** (/ a) to absolve (though absolution has s).2) b) to observe with all its derivatives. 1) To use occurs in the sense of be accustomed only in the Past fense and the Past Participle, and is then invariably followed by an Infinitive with to. He userf to go there. or: He was used to go there (this construction, however, does not occur so often as the preceding). Now the t of to makes the d of used voiceless; and this voiceless d ( — t) in its turn makes the s of used voiceless, so that the pron. becomes yüust. 2) Absolve is also heard with s. 5 c) after de- pre- redeserve, preserve, resent. But when these prefixes are still clearly feit to signify negation, earlier time, repetition, respectively, the following s is voiceless. The principal words where this is the case are: desecrate, desolate, desultory, desuetude, presuppose, presentiment 1), resign 2), (= sign again). Observe: resurrection with s = z. 2) Finally. gas. kris. Exceptions. a) in as, kis, is, was, has. b) in classical words in es: series. Hercules. c) inflectional s, exc. after voiceless consonant. beads, joys, he goes, he ends. Note. Final s becoming medial before vowel, = z. gas s = s. gasometer s = z. 1) With which comp.: presentment; s = z. 2) „ ,, „ to resign = abdicate', s — z. Except a) the s of trans and mis is always s fo+v* transatlantic. misundcrstood. fi) the s of dis is ahvays s except in: ° ^ disaster, disease, dismal, disarm. ~ :'1- 3) Doublé, li***, 'pK*< Except in: 9 possess, hussar, scissors, dissolve, dessert. 4) Between consonant and e-mute pulse. verse. Except only in: to cleanse. 5) Before or after a voiceless consonant: hospita!. 6) Before or after l n r1). fa <*'• Wilson. ransom. (}~2^ '(? E«iPt: ' ^ a) between l. n, r and y or ey. \ "*^ Jersey, palsy. b) between vowel and l r muslin, Israelite. Near m the s is voiced: crimson. dismal. k >• W+ 'X. 0*^ Jtsw ^ /•{/'i\ » § 101. SC — s before e, i, y. scene. rescind, scythe. Exc. sceptic, scepticism which are also written, and always prononnced, with k. = z in: discern. = sk before l, o, u, r, a. . scale, scum. § 102. Sch = sk: scheme, schooner. Except in: scliism, where sch = s. § 103. T. For aspiration cf t see § 80. §104. T is mute: a) between / and en : soften, often. b) „ s „ en : hosten, listen. c) „ s „ le \ castte d) in the words: Christmas chestnut coastguard mortgage waistcoat bankruptcy postpone. i saint, when followed by a proper name. ' ' Note. In often, waistcoat and coastgard the / t is sometimes heard. See § 129. § 105. Th. = t in: Thomas1), Thames, Theresa, Thomson, Anthony, Chatham, Esther, Thibet, thyme, asthma, isthmus, phthisis2). § 106. Th is vciceless: 1) Initially. t think. thigh. Exc. in Articles, Pronouns and Adverbs; the principal ones being: the, this, these, that, those, thou, thy, thee, they, their, them, than, then, there, thence, though, thither. 2) Finally: smith. ruth. Exc. in: booth, smoolh, with, to mouth, to smooth, to bequeath. But in: forthwith the second syllable has astrong secondary stress; that is why most people pronounce the final th voiceless. Note: Before the s of the plural: th remains voiceless after consonants and short vowels: girths. moths *) Cf. Tom. ') See § 97. § 128. Sometimes, however, the facts are slightly different, Every Englishman is more or less clearly aware that in unstrest syllables no vowel can be long. If then we occasionally read in books that we should pronounce fountain = faun'të'n, we see in this an attempt at making spelling and pronunciation agree, it is true. But this time the contrast between symbol and sound is due not to some forgotten phonetic law, but to a living principle. To suit the sound to the spelling in this case is the merest affectation, the work only ot the pedantic or the ignorant schoolmaster. § 129. I subjoin a list of words that in our days are giving up their older pron. for the sake of a spellingpronunciation. Old pron. spelling-pron. extraordinary ekstród.. . .also: ekstra-ód ... plaid plced ,, plcnl plait plat ,, plë't waistcoat weskit „ wë'stcö»t wainscoat wenskit ,, ■wëinskö»t again 9 gen „ sgbn against ggenst ,, pgêbist Saint John Sin'dijn „ Sêmt dion1) Saint Leger Sil'indis „ Sêmt ledig Derby dabï ,, dvbi seamstress sem'stres „ sïmstres l) The word Saint ,when unstrest, has in MoE. become san in every instance, except in the family name Saint John = Sindzsn and Saint Leger = Silidès. Hence we speak of the Gospel of Son déon. The spelling pronunciation makes this again into Sêint dzon. threepence thripsns also: thrvpens been bin mostly bvn twopence tvpsns also twpens hover v ,, ö» or o constable v ,, o hovel v ,, o comrade v ,, o conduit v always o combat v also o bombast v always o bomb v also o irontier v ,, o sovereign v mostly o grovel v also o Wednesday wensdi ,, wednasdï Woolwich wulidz mostly wulits Greenwich grinidz ,, grvnits Harwich haridz mostly hcerits Ostrich ostridz always ostrits1). towards tödz also tnwödz Magdalen2) Módlin ,, Mcegdalin historical3) ist. .. ,, hist.... breakfast brekfast ,, brê'kfast (to be nephew Stephen avoided!) 1) A well-known dealer in Ostrich-feathers writes to say that in the trade the word is always pronounced ostrits. 2) Magdalen-College. Members of the University of course, never make use of the spelling-pronunciation. 3) The same in all words, of which the first unstrest syllable begins with h. suavity sua = swce. turquoise uoise= oiz or vz. salt a = ó or o. charwoman ar = a or ê. fe'male a — ë> (owing to male.) ombre o = o or ó, vase a = a or è>. i'rate = aïrbt. pro'file i — aï or v. Lucy = lüsï (no the y-sound). Lucifer = lü or lyü (with or without the y-sound). lukewarm with or without y-sound. memoir = mïmwó or metnwó. et'iquette stress on et'. to sojourn ,, ,, lst or 2nd syll. del'uge „ „ lst syll. of noun and verb. to consummate „ ,, lst or 2nd syll. to comment „ ,, lst „ 2nd ,, pretext ,, ,, lst » 2nd „ costume „ „ lst „ 2nd ,, extant „ „ lst „ 2nd „ access ,, ,, lst ,, 2nd ,, interlocutor ,, ,, loc. lamentable „ „ ment. spiritual „ ,, lst syll. spirituous „ „ lst ,, agriculture „ „ lsl „ artisan ,, ,, last „ metamorphose „ „ mor. paradise lens eighth transition . physiognomy salve psalmody psalmist voiceless s. voiced s. ë'tth. = trcensiin ot treenzisn. g = ë-, l mute or pronounced. I „ „