D •ssgriS* THE ACHEHNESE TEUKU UMA. SI.AIS I0'1> KF.I11UARY 1899. TIIE ACHEHNESE 15V Dr C. SNOUCK HURGRONJE Adviser for Native Affairs, Netherlands India, TRANSLATEI) BY the late A. W. S. O'SULLIVAN Assistant Colonial Secietary, Straits Settlemcnts, WITH AN INDEX BY R. J. WILKINSON Inspector of Schools, Federated Malay States, VOL. II. LATE E. J. BRILL LEYDEN, 1906. TKl'KU l'MA. >1- VIN 10'1' I K11RI ARV 1899. THE AOHEIIXESE bv Dr C. SNOUCK HURGRONJE Adviser for Native AfTairs, Netherlands India, T RANSLATED HY the late A. W. S. O'SULLIVAN Assistant Culonial Secretavy, Straits Settlements, WITH A N INI) IC X 1ÏY R. J. WILKINSON Inspcctor of Schools, Federated Malay States, VOL. II. Late e. j. KRIEL LEYDEN, iyo6. E. J. lirill, publishers and |irintcrs, Leyileu. SU Of e*. V%m v.\ ■ *'&\h . „ ? ■ ■ {f. >>v TABLE OF CONTENTS. VOLUME II. CllAl'TER I. Learning and Science; Pp. 1—65. (1) The practice of the three branches of Mohammedan teaching and its preliminary study in Acheh; p. 1. (2) The heretical mysticism and its antagonists; p. 10. (3) Present level of learning in Acheh; p. 20. (4) Schools and student life; p. 23. (5) Pranches of knowledge not appertaining to the threefold learning of Islam; p. 32. (6) Art; p. 59- CllAPTER II. Literature; Pp. 66—189. (1) Introductory; stories; forms of written literature; p. 66. (2) The Hikayat Ruhé; p. 78. (3) Epic Hikayats; p. 80. (4) Original treatises; p. 117. (5) Fiction; p. 121. (6) Tables relating to animals; p. 158. (7) Kcligious works; — pre-Mohammedan era; p. 165; (8) Idem; — Mohammedan era; p. 171. (9) Idem;— books of instruction and edification; p. 183. ( IIAI'TER III. (iames and Pastimes; Pp. 190—268. (1) Various games of young and old; p. 19O. (2) Games of chance; p. 208. (3) Ratébs; p. 2K>. (4) Music; p. 267. (5) Processions and popular feasts; p. 265. (6) Hikayats; p. 26S. Cu Ai'TEK IV. Re/igion; 1'p. 269- 351. (1) Introduction; p. 269. (2) Doctrine, popular beliefs, worship of saints, oaths; p. 281. (3) The remaining four "Pillars of Islam"; p. 303. (4) Domestic Law; p. 314. (5) Laws relating to trade and business; p. 319. (6) Government and the administration of Justice; p. 321. (7) The future of Islam; p. 338. INDEX; 1'p. 353—384. CORRIGENDA. Vol. II, p. 19, note 2: read: u-*?1» « * „ 35. note 1: Te long, read: Tèlong. „ „ „ 47, line 4 from below: srëng, read: sréng. „ „ „ 48, last line : sakèt, read : sakét. B „ „ 75, line 24: onomatapaeic, read: onotnatopoeic. „ „ , 76, line 15: tabung- || read: tabungka || . „ „ „ 87, line 26: te, read: the. „ 106, title of the picture: the Loiiïng Bata, read: Lueng Bata. „ „ „ 108, line 23: Teuka, read: 'leuku. T „ n 121, line 20: catastroph, read: catastrophe. „ „ „ 125, line 16: Panjang, read: Panyang. r - b 133, line 35; Parég, read: Paréh. 135, line 18: grurenda, read: geureuda. „ „ „ 135, line 19: naza, read: naga. „ „ 145, note 1, line 2: Ilague, read: Hague. „ „ ni45' note 4- lillc I: Kajangan, read: Kayangan. „ „ „ 186, line 9: worke, read: works. „ „ „ 204, line 2 from below: games, read: gaines i). „ „ „ 206, line 11 from below: apparation, rcad: apparition. „ „ „ 206, line 34: survives, read: survive. 208, note 2: te Malays, read: the Malays. 208, note 2, line 3: sevenholes, read: jéw» 216, line 3: 0» certain, read: on a certain. „ „ „ 223, line 33: rythmic, read: rhythmic. „ 260, note 1: rebah, read: rëbab. ft ft ft ' ->G\ line 6 from below: at the same time, read: and at the V 1) ff ' same time. „ „ „ 262, note: who weard, read: who wears. C< IRK1GKN DA. Vol. II, p. 266, line 21 : tneii Tm, read: meuön. n » » 273, line 13 : undoubled, read: undoubted x 1 v 277, line 12: utterances, read: utterance. v v v v line 14: before-, read: bef ore: „ „ „ 288, line 20: accounts, read: account. „ „ „ 293, line 7: from below: litte, read: little. n n v 3°°» 1'ne 17: foreigness, rcad: foreigners. v 326, line 2 from below: contries, read: countries. vvr 330, line 1: mained, read: maimed. „ „ 334, line I: kow, read: vvv 33$> line 12: z/jr sclfdevelopment, rcad: her self-development. v v v 338, line 13; ex tent, read: ex tent. vvv 34°> 'inc 2: repiarements, read: requirements. v v v 341 > l'ne '9; prevails, read: prevail. v v 343> l'nc 12 from below: indentified, read: identified. CHAPTER I. I.KARNING AND SCIENt'K. S •• The practice of the three branches of Mohammedan teaching and its preliminary study in Acheh. In Acheh, as in all countries vvhere Islam prevails, there is, properly Tlic leaming speaking, bilt one kind of science or leaming (Ach. cleunnr, from the "f 1>1,un' Arabic cilwu), embracing all t'nat man must believe and perform in accordance with the will of Allah as revealed to his latest Apostle Mohammad. It has in view the high and eminently practical purpose of enabling man to live so as to please God, and opening for him the door of eternal salvation. Heside it, all other human science is regarded as of a lower order, and serving merely to the attainment of worldly ends, both those which are permitted and those vvhich are forbidden by the sacred Law. In Mohammad's time and for a little while after, this single branch of knowledge was very simple and of small compass. The historical development of Islam, however, very soon produced dissent and brought new doctrines into being, so that the encyclopaedia of Mohammedan lore attained very respectable proportions, and the teachers were compelled in spite of themselves to concentrate their powers 011 single subjects. To gain some insight into the encylopaedia of Mohammedan leaming we must examine the chief features of the history of its composition. These I have already sketched in the introduction to my description of learned life in the ÏNIecca of to-dayso it need not be repeated here. It is enough to recapitulate those branches of Mohammedan leaming which are to some extent practised in Acheh. i) Mekka, Vol. II pp. 200—214. II I A TEACHER OF KURU'AN-RECITAL WITH HIS PUPILS I) Sec Vol. 1, p. 396 ct seij. The beginning of all learning for cvcry properly educated Moham- Elementary - \ \ t i" » t 11 teaching medan is the recitation of the Quran (Ach. beuct Kurii au). In this less (QUrsn-recistress is laid 011 understanding the contents of the book than 011 uuon> correctly intoning the Arabic sounds. This elementary instruction only gives practice to the ear, memory and organs of speech ; the rules for recitation contained in the pamphlets on the science of tajiu'ul and impressed vivïi voce 011 their pupils by the teachers of the Quran are worked out in very fine detail. What the pupil attains in his Quran curriculum, is the capacity to Results c 1-1 the Qur5n-it recite correctly the portions of the holy writ required for his daily simctiun. prayers. He is also able eventually to chant upon occasion extracts from the sacred Book according to the strict rules of the art, by way of a voluntary act of devotion. Besides this, the non-Arab learner gains an intimate acquaintance with a strange and difficult system of sounds, and thus acquires in passing some knowledge of phonetic science. Those who pass through the Quran-school are able, so far as tliey do not speedily forget what they have learned, to read the Arabic character with the vowel sounds; but unless they extend their studies further, this does not enable them to read Malay, or even Achehnese written in Arabic character. Therc are thus even among the higher classes very many persons who know little or notliing of reading; and the art of writing is still less widely disseminated. I have often heard Achehnese declare that they found it much more of a burden than a pleasure to be able to write. Personally they may seldom require to exercise their skill in writing; but every one who wants a letter or other document written betakes himself as a matter of course to his expert fellow-villager, and even seems to think he lias a claim 011 the latter's good-nature for the supply of the requisite stationery. We have already noticed the part played by this elementary instruction in the education of the Achehnese '). The organs of speech of the latter, like those of the Javancse, experience great difficulty in reproducing Arabic sounds. 1 luts all the purely Achehnese teachers who have not been grounded in the art of recitation under the strict instruction of a foreigner, divergc to' a vast extent from the Arabic gamut of sounds. Their nasal pronunciation of the caiu they have in common vvith other Indonesians, but the pronunciation, for example, of an accentcd u or au as ec ') is peculiarly Achehnese. Here, as in Java, these national peculiarities have of later years begun to disappear, since many of the best teachers are now schooled in Mekka. The lesser pandits learn of these or of professional Egyptian Quran reciters, who occasionally make a tour through Acheh. Course of When the pupil has practised the Arabic character with the aid of «"c'öurön.1" 'l WOO(Jen tablet {lok), he is given the last of the 30 portions (Ach. juih) of the Quran, written or printed separately, and recites this under the guidance of the teacher (ureucng pumubeuët or gurec). This portion is called juih atna ) from its initial word, and that which precedes it juih taba from the first two syllables of its initial word xj). In the curriculum the juih taba comes after the juih ama, and it is not till he has spelled out (hija) and chanted both of these to the satisfaction of his teacher, that the pupil begins the recitation of the whole Quran from the fatihah, the Mohammedan Lord's 1'rayerJ), to the end of the 114"! Surah. Othev ele- Those who are content with a minimum of further study, that is to struction " say almost a" girls and most boys, next proceed to learn the absolute essentials of religious lore from a small catechism, which we shall met with later on, in Achehnese prose and verse, in our description of their literature (n°s XCI to XCVII). They are also exercised either by word of mouth or with manuscript to guide them, under the supervision of parents or schoolmasters, in the performance of the five daily ritual prayers (Ach. seumayang) prescribed for all Mohammedans. The majority acquire this indispensable knowledge simply by imitation of what they see and hear others do. Those who employ documentary aid are not as a rule content with the Achehnese works. They read under proper guidance Malay text-books such as those named Masailah and Bidayah, which treat in a simple manner of the absolute first principles of religious doctrine and of the religious obligations of the Moslim. The teacher (male or female) must however explain it all in Achehnese, since a knowledge of Malay is comparatively rare in Acheh. A work such as the rhyming guide to Malay (see 11". XCVIII of the co* y >0 - 1) For example, lcüla = , kèëluhu = etc. 2) The Achehnese call the first ol the thirty divisions of the Quran ahuham from the opening syllables of this first chapter (wX+rv). Achehnese works enumerated in the next chapter) serves simply to inake it easy to remember the words most required. The part played by Malay in Acheh in the acquisition of religious sa, learning is almost the same as that assumed by Javanese in the Sunda knowledge of country. Au Achehnese who desires to learn something beyond the i^gUage for first clements of doctrine and law finds Malay indispensable. Even the more advnn- ' _ eed study in few popular manuals in his own tongue bristle with Malay words, while Acheh. reliable renderings of authoritative Arabic works, which are fairly numerous in Malay, are entirely wanting in Achehnese. Thus those who, without actually devoting themselves to study, still take pleasure in increasing their religious knowledge so far as time and circumstances allow, learn Malay en passant as they read. 1 his tliey must do in order to be able to understand even the simplest "kitab. A Malay kitab is a work derived or compiled from Arabic sources; as a rule only the introduction, the conclusion, and a few passing remarks are the work of the "author", the rest being mere translation. There is a superabundance of Malay kitabs of this description. One, the {'irat al-mustaqlm, written in Acheh by a non-Achehnese pandit of Arab origin from Gujerat, just about the period of Acheh s greatest prosperity, before the middle of the 17'^ century, is still much in vogue, though later Malay works 011 the law of Islam have now begun to supersede it. Not a few Achehnese, whose position demands that they should devote themselves to study, rest content with the perfunctory perusal of some such Malay kitabs, as these suffice to enable tliem to ofiiciate, say as tenngku meunasah ') or even as kali "). Hut though such may be called leubè or malém n), or even além in times and places where there is a scarcity of religious teachers, they are never known as ulama, for this name is reserved for the doctor who can enlighten others 011 matters connected with the law and religious doctrine with some show of authority. To be able to lay claim to the title of doctor it is necessary at least What is . . required of an to have studied, under competent guidance, some few authoritative uiama. Arabic works 011 law and doctrine. To reach this end the Achehnese employ a method different from that which has since ancient times 1) See Vol. I, pp. 70—75. 2) Vol. I, pp. 93—102. 3) Vol. 1, p. 71. been followed by the Javanese and Sundancse, — a method which certainly appears more rational, but which is on the other hand so fraught with difficulties, that most of those who adopt it lose courage long before they attain their purpose. Differencc Thus in Java the preparatory subjects (Arabic grammar etc.) so in- betwecn the meihods of dispensable in theory are left in abeyance and often not practised till vö^u^ii^java t'lc vc,y cn^- l 'lc pupil lifter being grounded in a few clementary and in Acheh. manuals is immediately introduced to the greater Arabic text-books. These he reads sentence by sentence under the guidance of a teacher who probably knows as little of Arabic grammar as his pupil, so that if he makes no serious mistakes in vocalizing the Arabic consonants, he owes it to his good memory alone. After each sentence is read, the teacher translates it into Javanese; the language employed of course differs greatly from that of daily life, as it is a literal rendering of the Arabic text, dealing with learned subjects and leaving technical ternis untranslated as a rule. It is only the similarity of these subjects one with anotlier and the unvarying style of the writers that assist the pupil in committing to memory the text (lapal) ') and translations {ma na or logat) '). The teacher follows up his word-for-word translation with an explanatory paraphrase {murad) '), designed to make the author's meaning comprehensible. Strange as it may appear, diligent students attain in the end so niuch proficiency by this curious method, as to be able to translate from Arabic into Javanese simple text-books. They are of course liable to gross errors, and even their vocalizing of the Arabic words is seldom entirely accurate. Mucli depends 011 the comparative age of their traditions in affairs of grammar. Where for instance their teacher or their teacher's teacher was well grounded in grammar, they are likely to pass 011 the .text in a more uncorrupted form tlian if it had been for a long time past transmitted from the memory of one to that of his successor. The cliief reason vvliy the patience of the Javanese students does not become exhausted in this process, is that they feel the sum of their knowledge augmented by each lesson. They take a pleasure in the consciousness of having read the authoritative text {lapal) in the original and this they would miss did they like the great majority limit them- i) Arab. Jzsl — selves to the reading of Javanese works. The subsequent literal translation (logat or mand) removes all doubt as to the meaning of the Arabic words, and the explanation (;murad) makes the matter digestible and capable of being applied. The other method of instruction which lias during the last thirty or m°"f forty years gradually gained supremacy in Java under Mekkan and themethodta Hadramite influence, is more logical, but requires much greater patience • and perseverance. It takes several years for the Indonesian to learn enough Arabic to enable him to begin to read a simple learned work with some degree of discrimination. Tliis preparation costs him no little racking of his brains, the results of which he cannot hope to enjoy for a long time to come. The Sundanese follow the same system as the Javanese, but with this additional difficulty, that the language into which the translation is made (Javanese) is strange to them, and that only the exposition [murad) is given them in thcir own tongue. This method, which in Java may still be called new-fashioned, appears to have been in voguc in Acheh for a long time past. It is only those who do not really devote themselves to study who employ the elementary Malay books, just as the Sundanese under similar circumstances avail themselves of Javanese works, or even of those wntten 111 their own tongue. But the student in Acheh begins by struggling through a mountain of graromatical matter. First comes the science of inflexions, sar ah or teuseuréh (Arab. (arf The^tud^of or tafrif), for which are employed manuals consisting chicfly of para- mar m Acheh. digms, especially that known as Midan (Arab. J\laan). 1 hese are followed by a number of widely known works on Arabic grammar (naku), which are generally studied in the order given below. The Achehnese names are as follows, the Arabic equivalents being given 111 the nute '): Awamè, Jeurumiah, Matamimah, Pawakèh, Alpiali, hbeunu Ake. It must be borne in mind that the Achehnese have the same difficulty to overcome as the Sundanese, since for them too the text-books nese method. are translated into a foreign language, the Malay. lhus we can easily understand how the majority of students in Acheh fail to complete what wc might call the preliminary studies (known to the Arabs as 0 iUaW ~ ~ Mat or "instruments"), by the correct handling of which onc may mastcr the principal branches of religious learning. I he popular verdict on the numerous scholars who have got 110 further tlian the Alpiah, yet are wout to vaunt themselves on their learning, finds expression in the verse which passes as a proverb among the Achehnese: "Study of grammar leads only to bragging, study of the Law produces saints"-). On the other hand a certain reverence lurks in the idea that prevails among the ignorant, that he who lias studied the nalni is able to comprehend the tongues of beasts. Besides the grammatical lore, there are also other "instruments", branches of learning subsidiary to the study of the law and of religious doctrine, but in no Mohammedan country and least of all in Acheh is the acquirement of these considered an indispensable prelude to the more advanced subjects. Such are for cxample the various subdivisions of style and rhetoric, arithmetical science (indispensable in the study of the law ot mheritance), astronomy, which assists in determining the calendar and the qihlah, and so forth. These subjects are indeed taught in Acheh, but they occupy no certain place in the curriculum generaUy adopted; the time spent 011 them depends very much on the pleasure of the students and the extent of their teachers' knowledge Mainobjec The main purpose of study should be, properly speaking, the knowledge of Allah s law as revealed through Mohammed in the Quran and 111 lus own cxample {Sitnnak), and as in the lapse of time (with the help of Qiyas or reasoning by analogy) confirmed and certified by the gene ral consent {Ijma) of the Moslim community. With the students or teachers of to-day, however, the knowledge of this law cannot be acquired by the study of the Quran and its commentaries together with the sacred tradition as to the acts (sunnah) of the Prophet. For such direct derivation of religious rules from their original sources a degree of knowledge is required which is at present regarded as quite beyond the student's reach. He lias to restrict himself to the authoritat've works 111 which the materials are moulded and arranged according to their subjects. In these studies eacli is bound to follow the lawbooks of the school (madhab) to which he belongs, although he must also recognize the full rights of the three other schools to their own interpretation of the law. 1) Elcumcë tiahu — Ic beurakah, clcumcë fikah — /<■ 'celia. Applying this principle to Acheh, we arrivé at the conclusion — a Authoritative conclusion fully justified by the facts — that the chief objects of study in that country are the authoritative Shafi'ite works on the learning of the law (Arab. ft/h, Ach. pikah). As these books are the same in all Shafi'ite countries, and the choice of any particular 011e of them does not affect the subject-matter of study, I consider it superfluous to give a list of this pi ka Z; -1 i t e ra t u re. 1 confine myself to observing that Nawawi's Minhaj attalibïn (Ach. Mcnlibt) and various commentaries thereon such as the Fath al-Wahhab (Ach. Peuthöioahab), the Tuhfah') (Ach. Tiipah) and Mahalli (Mahali) enjoy great popularity. The Usuy (Ufiil or Tawhid), i. e. "doctrine", is next in importance Study of to the Pikali. Both branches of learning are studied simultaneously; the former may even precede the latter if circumstances so require. The difTerences of the four schools or madhabs exercise no influence on this score, as they do in regard to the interpretation of the law. Thus even in a Shafi'ite country preference is by no means always given to such Usul-works as have Shafi ites for their authors. In Acheh the same works are employed for this branch of study as in other parts of the Archipelago, and especially those of Sanusi with their accompanying commentaries. The great Moslim father al-Ghazali (ob. iiii A. I).) describes the study Mysticism. of the law (Ach. Pikah) as the indispensable bread of life of the believers, the dogmatic teaching {Usuy) being the medicine which mankind, threatened with all manner of heresy and unbelief, is constrained to use as preventive and as cure. Lastly he considers mysticism (Arab. tacazuzviif, Ach. teusawdh) the highest and most important element in man's spiritual education, since it serves so to digest the bread of life and the medicine, that a true knowledge of God and of the community of mankind with the Creator may spring therefrom. Many works on the law and on dogma contain here and thcre mystic points of view, but expressly mystic orthodox works are also studied in Acheh. Yet these works on mysticism cannot be said to be popular in The more Acheh. As we know, a sort of heretical mysticism found its way into ^'mysticism! the E. Indian Archipelago simultaneously with the introduction of i) The Tuhfah and the Nihayah are the authoritative works par exctllencc for the Shafi'ites. Where the two agree, departure from their common tencts is prohibited, where they differ, the 'ater commentators decide the question. Islam, and still continues to cxercisc a great supremacy over men's minds, in spite of influences originating dircctly or indirectly from Arabia. Therc can be 110 doubt — numbers of writtcn documents testify to it — that this mysticism was brought hither by the pioneers of Islam from Hindustan. The most important works on mysticism in vogue in the Archipelago were penned by Indian writers, or else are derived from a body of mystics which flourished in Medina in the I7th century and which was strongly subject to Indian influence. To this body belonged Ahmad QushashI, ') whose disciples became the teachers of the devout in Javanese and Malayan Countries. Many of these Indian authors and also QushashI and his disciples, represent a mysticism which though regarded by cautious and sober doctors of the law as not exempt from danger, is still free from actual heresy. Behind this orthodox mysticism comes another, hardly distinguishable from the first on a superficial view, but which by its unequivocal pantheism and its contempt for sundry ritual and traditional elements of Islam, lias incurred the hatred of all orthodox Mohammcdans. S 2. The Heretical Mysticism and its Antagonists. 11crctical The heretical mysticism, of which tliere are numerous distinct shades, ystiLism, ]lerC) as jn jntjja> 0I1 fruitful soil, and nothing but the persecutions which orthodox theologians occasionally succeeded in inducing the princes to resort to, were able to thrust this pantheistic heresy back to narrovv limits. This latter sort of mysticism has this in common with the orthodox kind, that it finds in man's community with his Maker the essence and object of religion, and regards ritual, law and doctrine merely as the means to that end. Many of the representatives of this mysticism almost at once forsook the orthodox track and embraced the belief i) We shall shortly give further particulars in regard to this remarkable personage. For the present let it suftice to observe that the usn/(isi/(i/is" (i. e. spiritual gencalogical tailles, the "chains" of mystie tradition) of the most eclebrated mystics in the Archipelago up to about 50 years ago generally have as thcir starting-point this Ahmad Oushashï of Medina, who in his turn counted many natives of India among his spiritual ancestors. The great saint of Acheh, Shaich Abdurra'uf of Singkel, now callcd Teungku di Kuala from the fact that he is buried near the mouth of the Acheh river, was a zcalous pupil of Ahmad QushashI- that other means than those mentioned above also lcad to the desired end, and that those who live in community with God are already here on earth raised to sonie extent above ritual and law; the religious teaching of these is entirely different from the official sort, and is at most connected with the latter by arbitrary interpretations and by allegory. Most of them also so conceive the community with God, that the distinction between the creature and the Creator is lost sight of. This pantheism is set forth by some authors in the form of a philosophy; others — and these are the most popular — describe it in mysterious formulas and in sundry comparisons, based on a play on words or numbers. They illustrate, for example, the doctrine that every part of creation is a manifestation of the Creator s being, by pointing to the higher unity in which move harmoniously the four winds, the four clements, the four chief components of ritual prayer, the four archangels, the four righteous successors of Mohammed and the four orthodox schools of jurisprudence. Now as with man the four limbs correspond with the four great inspired books and the four sorts of qualitics of God, so we see how among other things this evei-recurring number four demonstrates the unity of the whole of God's creation. It is the task of mysticism to awaken in man the consciousness of this unity, so that he may identify himself alike with God and with the Universal. The almost universal influence formerly enjoyed by this sort of mysticism is shown by the vast number of manuscripts to be found among the Indonesian Mohammedans, proclaiming this teaching with the aid of pantheistic explanations of orthodox formulas, allegorical figures with marginal notes, arguments etc. To this it may be added that while varying greatly in detail, they are entirely at one in their main purpose. This scheme of universal philosophy was (and is still, though in a Spread o ,.tii pantheistic «liminisliini/ deirree) represented by those occupied in the stuuy and mysticism teaching of the law, ') just as mucli as by the village philosophers and the spiritual advisers of the chiefs. Now it is obvious that these religious lago. teachers have never gone so far as to assume from the mystic unity of Creature and Creator the nullity or superfluity of the Law. In their i) In Java for instance, many of these "primbons" or memorandum-books were given me by orthodox teachers of religion, who had inherited them from their fathers or grandfathers (teachers like themselves), but set no store by them themselves, and were even a little ashamed of having them in their possession. opinion the fulfilment of this law was indispensable, although in practice fruitless for the majonty of thosc who are in name believers, since tliey have not grasped the deep mystic significance of the ritual observances and of the law in general. Others however go much further and assert that this complete consciousness of the universal unity is a universal sembahyang or prayer, which does away with the necessity for the five daily devotional exercises of ordinar\ men. Nay they sometimes go so far as to brand as a servant of many gods one who continues to offer up his sembahyang or to testify that there is no God but Allah, since he that truly comprehends the Unity knows that "there is no receiver of prayer and no ofterer thereof;" for the One cannot pray to or worship itself. The Javanese put such philosophy in the mouths of their greatest saints, and among the Malays and Achehnese also, teachers who proclaimed such views have been universally revered since early times. inMAchchSTn Fr°m th.° chronicIcs of Achdl' portions of which have been published the ió'h and lj>' 1 )r- Nicmann, ') we learn somewhat of the religio-philosophical life rics. 1,1 Acheh '» the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Wc sec there that the religious pandits who held mastery in the country were not Achehnese, but either Syrians or Egyptians who came to Acheh from Mekka, or cl se natives of India, such as Ranïrï2) from Gujcrat. We also notice 1) Bloemlezing uit Maleische geschriften, 2nd eclition, pp. If. — \f. 2) I cannot discover whether the Muhammad Jailanï h. Ilasan 1,. Muhammed Hamid Ranïrï of the chronicles is actually identieal with the man known as Nuruddïn b. Ali. I>. Hasanji b. Muhammad Ranïrï, or a younger relative of his. The latter name is mentioncd in I)r. van der Tuuk's essay on the Malay mss. of the Royal Asiatic Society (sec Essays relating to hnio-China, 2e series, Vol II, p. 44-45 and 49-52). The man of whom N.emann spcaks came to Acheh for the second time in 1588 and settled the disputed questions of the day in regard to mysticism; the Ranïrï of Van der Tuuk resisted the mystic teaching of Shamsuddïn of Sumatra (Pasei), who according to the chronicles cdited l.y Nicmann died in 1630, and wrote the most celebrated of his works shortly before and during the reign of Queen Safiatddin Shah (1641—75). This would render the identity of the two very improbable, but the chronicler may have made an error in the date. The omission of the name Ali in the chronicle is in itself no difficulty, and the names Muhammad Jailanï and Nuruddïn may quite well have belonged to one and the same person; nay, in a Hatavian ins. (sec Van den IScrg's Verslag p. 1, no. 3 and 9, no. 49 c.) Nuruddïn ar Ranïrï is actually also called Muhammad Jailanï. In the margin of an cdition of the Taj-ul-mulk (sec § 5 below) which appeared at Mekka in A. II. 1311, is printed a trcatise bearing the title Had ehalq as-samawat wal-ardh. The author of this treatise is called Nuruddïn bin Al' Hasanji, and in the Arabic introduction it is told of him that he came to Acheh in November 1637, and received from Sultan Iskandar Thani the command to write this book 111 March 163S. The dates given, however, in the Malay translation which immcdiately follows the Arabic introduction, are quite different from the above! that what the Achchnese of that day specially desired of their foreign teachers was enlightenment on questions of mysticism, as to which much contention prevailed. The best known representatives of a more or less pantheistic mysticism Shamsuddïn were a certain Shaikh Shamsuddïn of Sumatra (= Pasè), who seems *pansur;'_ to have enjoyed much consideration at the court of the great Meukuta Alam (1607—-36) '), and who died in 1630, and his forerunner Hamzah Pansuri.2) The orthodox opponents of this Indo-Mohammedan theosophy in a Persecution Malay dress won their wish under tlie successor of Meukuta Alam, who "r llLiaitsat their instigation put the disciples of Hamzah to death, and had the books which embodied his teaching burnt. Many of these works, however, escaped the dames, '1) and the princes and chiefs of Acheh were not always so obedient to the orthodox persecutors. Even to the present day Hamzah's writings are to be met with botli in Acheh and in Malay countries, and in spite of the disapproval of the pandits they form the spiritual food of many. In the language of the Arab mysticism, he who strives after communion with God is a stil ik or walker 011 the way (tarlqah) leading to the highest. Although these words are also used by most of the orthodox mystics, popular expression in Acheh has specially applied the term sfilik-learning (èleumèë sale) to such mystic systems as are held in abhorrence by the orthodox teachers of the law. About 30 or 40 years ago 011e Teungku Teureubuë 4) acquired a great celebrity in the Pidië district as a teacher of such cleumec sale . Men and women crowded in hundreds to listen to his teaching. Even his opponents gave him the credit of having been extremely well versed in Arabic grammar, a thing we rarely hear of other native mystics. Yet the opposition which his peculiar doctrines excited among the representatives of the official orthodoxy was so great that they instigated Béntara Keumangan (chief of the league of the six ulèëbalangs) to 1) See the Achehnese chroniclcs cdited by Niemann, p. 'fl, lino 7. 2) As to these two sec I)r. Van der Tuuk's essay pp. 51—52* '1 Hamzah belongs to an earlier period may be gathered from the faet that Shamsuddïn wrote commentaries on some of his works. 3) Hence I was able to obtain from an Achehnese a copy of the mentioned by Van der Tuuk. 4) So called after the gampöng in Pidië where he taught; li is real name was Muhamat Sa'it, abbreviatcd into It. cxtirpate the heretics. I he teacher and many of his faithful disciples set a seal to their belief by tlieir death. [Notwithstanding this, T. Teureubue found a successor in his disciple Teungku Gadè, also known as I eungku di Geudong or (froni the name of the gampöng where he lives) 1 eungku leupin Raya. In the centre of this gampöng is the tomb of Teungku Teureubue, surrounded by a thick and lofty wall. The village is under the control of the teacher and is mainly peopled with his disciples.] Habii> Sc«- No such violent end overtook the Habib ') Seunagan, who . 390 and notc on p. 10 above. 2) Publishcd al Batavia 1877. 3) N° 1930. 4) Numbered Schumann V, 6. 5) Van den Berg'appears not to have rcad further than the first page. 6) Among the Malay MSS. which 1 collected in Acheh, is an abstract made by the author himself of his 1'nnhU at-muhtaj'in under the name Ktfayat al-muhtajïn, and also a short refutation of certain heretical dogmas prevalent in these parts in regard to what man sees and experiences in the hour of death. To support his teaching the writer appeals to a work of Molla Ibrahim (succcssor of Ahmad Qushashï) at Medina; of this work I possess a Malay translation by an unknown hand. Another famous work of this same Abdurra'uf is his Malay translation of Baidhawi's commentary on the Quran, published in A. II. 1302 at Constantinople in two handsomely printed volumes. On the title page Sultan Abdulhamïd is called "the king of all Mohammcdans!" From this work we pcrceivc among other things, that the learning of our saint was not infallible; his translation for instance of chap. 33 verse 20 of the Quran is far from correct. mentions 110 less than 15 masters at whose feet he sat, 27 distinguished pandits whom he knew, and 15 celcbrated mystics with vvhom he camc in contact. Ahmail Above all others he esteems and praises the mystic teacher Shaikh ush.uin. Ahmad Qushashï at Medina. He calls him his spiritual guide and teacher in the way of God, and tells hovv after his death he (Abdurra'uf) obtained from his successor Molla Ibrahim permission to found a school himself. Thus after 1661 Abdurra'uf taught in Acheh, and won so many adherents that after he died his tomb was regarded as the holiest place in all the land, till that of the sayyid called Teungku Anjöng somewhat eclipsed it after 1782. We noticed above (footnote to p. 10) that the mysticism of Ahmad Qushashï was disseminated in the K. Indian Archipelago by a great number of khalifahs (substitutes), who generally obtained the necessary permission on the occasion of their pilgrimage to Mekka. I11 Java we find innumerable salasilahs or spiritual genealogical trees of thi.s tariqah or school of mystics. I11 Sumatra some even give their tariqah the special name of Qushashite'); and it is only of late years that this Satariah, as it is usually called, lias begun to be regarded as an oldfashioned and much-corrupted form of mysticism and to make place for the tarlqahs now most popular in Mekka, sucli as the Naqshibendite and Qadirite. Satariah. ' have called this school of Qushashï corrupt for two reasons. In the first place its Indonesian adherents have been so long left to themselves, -) that this alone is enough to account for the creeping in of all manner of impurities in the tradition. Hut besides this, both Javanese and Malays have made use of the universal popularity enjoycd by the name Satariah as a hall-mark with which to authenticate various kinds of village philosophy to a large extent of pagan origin. We find for instance certain formulas and tapa-rules which in spite of unmistakeable indications of llindu influence may be called peculiarly Indonesian, 1) Ahmad Qushashï himself calls his tariqah the Shattarite (after the well-known mystic school founded by as-Shattarl) and points out that some of his spiritual ancestors also represent the Qadirite tariqah. In the E. Indian Archipelago also, Satariah is the name most in use to designate this old-fashioncd mysticism. 2) In Arabia the Shattarite mysticism secms long to have fallen out of fashion; in Mekka and Medina the very name is forgottcn. In British India it still prevails herc and therc, but as far as I am aware it does not enjoy anywhere a popularity which even approaches that which it lias attaincd in Indoncsia. recommended for usc as Satariali often along with salasilahs in which the names of Abdurra'uf and Ahmad Qushashï appear. The work of Abdurra'uf is, however, in accord with orthodox doctrine, albeit his attitude lias excited the jealous or envious sneers of many a pandit. It might cause surprise that the name of Abdurra'uf should appear in the salasilahs of QushashT's teaching not alone in Sumatra but also to a great extent in Java, since as a matter of fact both Javanese and Sundanese imported this tarlqah directly from Arabia. Hut apart from the possibility of Abdurra'uf's having initiated fellow-countrymen or those of kindred race before leaving Arabia, after he had received permission to form a school, wc must remember that before sailing ships were replaced by steamers as a mcans of conveyance for visitants to Mekka, Acheh formed a great halting-place for almost all the pilgrims from the Eastern Archipelago. The Achehnese used to speak of their country with sonie pride as "the gate of the Iloly Land". Many remained there a considerable time on their way to and fro, while some even settled in the country as traders or teachers for the remainder of their lives. ') Thus many Javanese may on their journey through, or in the course of a still longer visit, have imbibed the instruction of the Malay teacher. In the extant copies of his writings Abdurra'uf is sometimes described as "of Singkel," and sometimes "of 1'ansur," but it is a remarkablc fact that his name is almost always followed in the salasilahs by the words "who is of the tribe of Hamzah Pansuri" 2). I have nowhere indeed found it stated that Abdurra'uf expressly opposed the teaching of Hamzah, but the spirit of his writings shows that he must have regarded it as heretical. One might have supposed that under these circtimstanccs he would at least have refrained from openly claiming relationship with Hamzah. The only explanation I can give of this phenomenon lies in the extraordinary popularity of the name of Hamzah, which may have 1) As may wcll be supposed, sucli sojourn was the reversc of favourable to the good feeling of the Javanese etc. towards their Kuropean rulers. An example of this in our own times was Teungku Lam Paiöh, who died not many years since. He was a Javanese of Yogya, who married and had a far.iily in Acheh, and without mucli claim to learning cume to be regarded as a saint by a ccrtain coterie, 'l'his presumptuous pretender to sanctity borrowed his name from the gampöng (within the "linie") where he had his abode. 2) The expression is (Jav. O) «._>. mentions no less than 15 masters at whose fcct he sat, 27 distinguished pandits whom hc knew, and 15 celebrated mystics with whom hc came in contact. Ahmad Abovc all others he cstcems and praises the mystic teacher Shaikh ush.isiu. Ahmad Qushashl at Medina. Ho calls him his spiritual guide and teacher in the way of God, and tells how aftcr his death he (Abdurra'uf) obtained from his successor Molla Ibrahim permission to found a school himself. Thus aftcr 1661 Abdurra'uf taught in Acheh, and won so many adherents that aftcr hc died his tomb was regarded as the holiest place in all the land, till that of the sayyid called Teungku Anjöng somewhat eclipsed it after 1782. We noticcd above (footnote to p. 10) that the mysticism of Ahmad Qushashl was disseniinated in the IC. Indian Archipelago by a great number of khalifahs (substitutes), who generally obtained the necessary permission 011 the occasion of their pilgrimage to Mekka. I11 Java we find innumerable salasilahs or spiritual genealogical trees of this tariqah or school of mystics. I11 Sumatra some even givc their tariqah the special name of Qushashite'); and it is only of late years that this Sa/ar/ah, as it is usually called, lias begun to be regarded as an oldfashioned and much-corrupted form of mysticism and to make place for the tariqahs now most popular in Mekka, sucli as the Naqshibendite and Qadirite. Satariah. I have called this school of Qushashl corrupt for two reasons. I11 the first place its Indonesian adherents have been so long left to themselves, -) that this alone is enougli to account for the creeping in of all manner of impurities in the tradition. Hut besides this, botli Javanese and Malays have made use of the universal popuiarity enjoyed by the name Satariah as a hall-mark with which to authenticatc various kinds of village philosophy to a large extent of pagan origin. We find for instance certain formulas and tapa-rules which in spite of unmistakeable indications of Hindu influence may be called peculiarly Indonesian, 1) Ahmad Qushashl himself calls his tart <] ah the Shattarite (after the well-known mystic school founded by as-Shattari) and points out that some of his spiritual ancestors also represent the Qadirite tariqah. In the E. Indian Archipelago also, Satariah is the name most in use to designate this old-fashioned mysticism. 2) In Arabia the Shattarite mysticism sccms long to have fallen out of fashion; in Mekka and Medina the very name is forgotten. In British India it still prevails herc and there, but as far as I am aware it does not enjoy anywliere a popuiarity which even approaches that which it lias attained in Indonesia. recommended for nsc as Satariah often along with salasilahs in which the names of Abdurra'uf and Ahmad Qushashï appear. The work of Abdurra'uf is, however, in accord with orthodox doctrine, albeit his attitude lias excited the jealous or envious sneers of many a pandit. It might cause surprise that the name of Abdurra'uf should appear in the salasilahs of QushashI's teaching not alone in Sumatra but also to a great extent in Java, since as a matter of fact both Javanese and Sundanese imported this tarlqah directly from Arabia. But apart from the possibility of Abdurra'uf's having initiated fellow-countrymen or those of kindred race before leaving Arabia, after lie had received permission to form a school, we must remember that before sailing ships were replaced by steamers as a means of conveyance for visitants to Mekka, Acheh formed a great halting-place for almost all the pilgrims from the Kastern Archipelago. The Achehnese used to speak of their country with some pride as "the gate of the Holy Land". Many remained tliere a considerable time on their way to and fro, while some even settled in the country as trailers or teachers for the remainder of their lives. ') Thus many Javanese may on their journey through, or in the course of a still longer visit, have imbibed the instruction of the Malay teacher. In the extant copies of his writings Abdurra'uf is sometimes described as "of Singkel," and sometimes "of Pansur," but it is a remarkable fact that his name is almost always followed in the salasilahs by the words "who is of the tribe of Hamzah Pansuri" 2). I have nowhere indeed found it stated that Abdurra'uf expressly opposed the teaching of Ham/ah, but the spirit of his writings shows that he must have regarded it as heretical. One might have supposed that under tliese circumstances he would at least have refrained from openly claiming relationship with Hamzah. The only explanation I can give of this phenomenon lies in the extraordinary popularity of the name of Hamzah, which may have 1) As may well be supposed, such sojourn was the reverse of favourable to the good feeling of the Javanese etc. towards their Kuropean rulers. An example of this in our own times was Teungku Lam Paiöh, who died not many years since. He was a Javanese of Yogya, who married and had a family in Acheh, and without much claim to learning cume to be regarded as a saint by a eertain coterie. This presumptuous pretender to sanetity borrowed his name from the gampöng (within the "linie1') where he had his abode. 2) The expression is (J^v« ■ induced the disciples of Abdurra'uf to avail themselves of this method in order the better to propagate their own orthodox mysticisni. Sleight dissc- Abdurra'uf has undoubtedly had a great influence on the spiritual the'^other ta^ ''^e °f the Achehnese, though it is true that of such mystic systems ricjalis in onlv certain externals (such as the repetition of dikrs at tixed timcs, Acheh. J . . ' , , and the honour paid to their teachers) are the property of the Iovver classes. But his works are now little read in Acheh, and adherents of a Shattarite tarlqah or school of mysticism are few and far between. The other tarïqahs, which in later timcs caused so great a falling away from the Satariah, cannot boast one whit the more of great success in Acheh. Perhaps the war is to blame for this, but without doubt the Achehnese adherents of the Naqshibandiyyah or Qadiriyyah are of no account as compared with those of West Java or of Deli and Langkat. On the other hand the tomb of Abdurra'uf continues to attract crowds of devout visitors, and it is made the object of all kinds of vows which are fulfilled by pious ofïferings to the saint. This tomb has become the subject of a characteristic legend which shows how little regard the Achehnese pay to chronology. Legend res- Some of them make out Abdurra'uf to have been the introducer durra'uT Ab" ^s'am 'nto Acheh, although this religion was prevalent in the country at least two centuries before his time. Others make him a contemporary of Hamzah Pansuri and represent him as the latter's antagonist, as it became a holy teacher to be. The story goes that Hamzah had established a house of ill-fame at the capital of Acheh; for no vice is too black to be laid at the door of heretics. Abdurra'uf made appointments with the women, one after another; but in place of treading with them the path of vice, he first paid them the recompense they looked for, and then proceeded to convert them to the true faith. § 3. Present level of learning in Acheh. From the above remarks it may have been gathered that for more than three centuries the three chief branches of learning of Islam (Fiq/i, U(ul and Tafawwuf, Ach. Pik ah, Usuy and Tensawnh) and as a means or instrument to attain them, the Arabic grammar and its accessories have been practised in Acheh. Ihere are just as many at the present day as in earlier times, who liave reached a moderate degree of proficiency in this triple learning, and the branch that is studied with especial zeal is the Law, which is also that of the greatest practical utility. Some gather their knowledge in their native country, others undergo a wider course of study in the Straits Settlements 01 at Mekka. Whether learning advanccd or declined in Acheh during the historical Learning in . Acheh in an- period of which we have some knowledge cannot be deiinitely ascer- c[ent an(j ;n tained. The fact that such an extraordinary number of Malay writings modem times. on the teaching of Islam appeared in Acheh during the 16"1 and 17th centuries was merely the result of the political condition of the countiy, as that period embraces the zenith of the prosperity of the port-kings. Among the authors of these works or among the most celebrated mystics, heretical or orthodox, we do not find a single Achehnese name, but onlv those of foreign teachers. Learned Mohammedans have at all times sought countries where their attainments commanded solid advantages in addition to honour and respect. ') The activity of these champions, who fought their learned battles in the capital, had but little significance in regard to the scholarly or religious development of the people of Acheh. It mav well be supposed that thcre were formerly as well as at the Value of th< J learned writ present time some teachers of Achehnese race who gave the necessary jn^s Qf enlightenment to their countrymen in Malay or Achehnese writings The fame of such works of the third rank, however, is not wont long to survive their authors2); and to this must be added the fact that they were always compiled to meet the requirements of a definite period and of a definite public. Pamphlets like those of leungku liró or Teungku Kuta Karang, and books and treatises such as those of Chèh Marahaban (to be more closely described in Chap. II) will not be so much as spoken of half a century hence. There is one treatise in Malay apparently written by an Achehnese 1) Even up to the present time teachers and exponents of mysticism occasionally come, chiefly from Mekka, to make a profit of their learning or their sanctity among religiously disposed chiefs in various parts of the country. 2) The writings of Teungku Tim (Chèh Saman) and of Chèh Marahaban, both of «hom were (before the war) among the most highly esteemed teachers in the countiy, furnish us with a good gauge wherewith to measure the highwater-mark of learning in Acheh. I.ike those of all their predecessors among their own countrymen, their productions liavc not the smallest significance 01 value outside the narrow liinits of their own land. named Malem Itam or Pakèh Abdulwahab '), in which are collectcd the principal rules of the law in regard to marriage, and the original of which is fully a century old. Another Achehnese named Mohammad Zain bin Jalaluddïn, from whose hand there appeared in Malay an insignificant essay on a subordinate part of the ritual, -) and one of the innumeiable editions of Sanusi's sniall manual of dogma,,1) appears als° to have been the author of a Malay treatise on the Mohammedan law of marriage, 4) which enjoyed the honour of being lithographed in Constantinople in A. II. 1304 under the name liab an-nikah (Chapter 011 marriage). I do not know in what connection this writer stands with Jalaluddin (= 1 eungku di Lam (int, see p. 28 below) who in A. II. 1242 (A. D. 1S2Ó- 27) wrote the Tambiho rapilin (see Chap. II, N°. LXXXVl). It is probably due to chance that his works have not been consigned to oblivion like those of so many others. They are not specially marked by any redeeming traits and are also devoid of local colour, with the exception of an appendix two pages in length attached to Mohammad Zains lktb an-nikah, containing precepts designed to snit the requirements of Achehnese life. 1 he most charactcristic of these precepts concerns the taqftd (Ach. tcukeulit) i- e. resorting to the authority of the imam of the Hanafite school in respect to the marriage of a girl who is a minor and without father or giandfather. 1 he object of the author is to give Iegal sanction to the peculiar Achehnese custom of the halc meudcnhab.r') Study lias The study of the teaching of Islam, of what is generally described not declined in Acheh. 1) I find no clear indication of the author's name in the threc copies with which I am acquainted (lierlin Royal I.ibrary, Schuinann V, 6, and Malay MSS. of the I.eiden library, N"- 1752 and 1774). 2) Sec Van den Berg's Vcrs/ug, p. 7, N° 36. 3) See Van den lïerg's l \ rs/ " ••• o ^ u •• • " lC.W.\av m as "Mohammedan law", lias not dcclincd in Acheh, thougli ït has received somewhat of a check during the disturbanccs of the past 30 years. If such learning is of little value as a qualification for offices such as those of kali') and teungku meunasah 2), that is due partly to the adat vvhich makes these offices hereditary, and partly to the fact that the chiefs do not want as kalis too energetic upholders of the sacred law, and to the reluctance of all truc pandits to strengthen the chiefs' hands by pronouncing their crooked dealings straight. Such branches of study as commentaries 011 the Quran (Tafslr, Ach. ornamental . .... 1 ... 1 branches of Teupcusë) or the sacred tradition (Hadith, Ach. Hadili) which in the sUuly earliest times of Islam formed the piice de résistance of all learning, as it was from them that the people derived their knowledge of the rules of law, have now become more or less ornamental, since the study of the law has been made independent of them. Such ornamental bianches of learning are however highly esteemed even in Acheh. Proficient teacliers occasionally give instruction in them, but no one thinks of studying these until he has mastered the essentials of 1 ikali and l suy. 8 4. Schools and Student Life. The student life of Mohammedans in the Archipelago would furnish student life. an attractive subject for a monograph. The pësantrèns of Java have indeed been described in a number of essays, but in these nothing is to be found but a superficial view of the question, which has liever been closely examined. A capital and wide-spread error in regard to the schools of the No real 1 .1 1 1 r schools 01 Mohammedan religion in these countries is that tliey are schools ot j,ricsts. priests -1). This is absolutely untrue; not only because tliere are 110 such things as Mohammedan "priests", but also because, even if we admit the erroneous term "priests" or "clergy as applied to the pengulus, naibs, modins, lebès etc. in Java, the pësantrèns cannot in any sense be regarded as training-schools for the helders of these otlices. Most 1) Sec vol I, 1'. 93- 2) Sce VoL 'i PP- ct SC<1' 3) Van den lierg falls into this error in his essay. De Mohammcdaaitsehe geestelijkheid etc! of Java en .V,uloera (ISatavia 1882) p. 22 et seq., and therefore expresses his astonishment at the fact that the pësantrèns in West Java are attended by women «although thcy cannot of course become eandidates for any priestly oltice. of the pëngulus and naibs (hut not the so-called desa-clergy) have, it is true, attended a pësantrèn for a time, but there are many who have entirely neglected such instruction. What is still more striking, however, is the fact that the great majority of students in pësantrèns never think of competing for a "priestly" office; indeed it may be said of ninety per cent of the santri or students that they would be unwilling to f.11 such offices, and that they rather as a class view those who occupy them with contempt and sometimes even with hatred. iny"uhiusand AS 'n JaVa S° alS° Sumatra and elsewhere relations are proverbially strained betwecn the gurus or "kyahi" (as they are called in Java) i. e. the non-official or teaching pandits, and the pëngulus and their subordinates, including those officials in othcr countries whose duties correspond to those of pëngulu in Java. Those who administer the Moslim law of inheritance and marriage, who control the great mosques and conclude marriage contracts, regard these kyahis and all belonging to them as a vexatious, quarrelsome, hairsplitting, arrogant and even fanatical sort of people; while these teachers and pandits, on their part, accuse the pëngulus of ignorance, worldliness, venality and sometimes even of evil living. As we have already observed, by far the greater number of the students who frequent the prsantrèns or pondoks in Java, the suraus in mid-Sumatra, or the rangkangs in Acheh, is composed of embryo teachers or pandits, who disdain rather than desire office, or of those whose parents set a value 011 a specially thorough course of religious instruction. Such institutions could only properly be termed "schools for the priesthood" if we might apply the name of priest to all persons who had passed through a course of theological training. The students. I11 Acheh as well as in Java there are to be found among the students young men of devout families; sons of the wealthy and distinguished whose parents consider it befitting that some of their children should practise sacred learning; lads who study from an innate love of and impulse towards learning, to contradict which would be estecmed a sin on the part of their parents; some few who are later on to be péngul lts, naibs, teungk'us of meunasahs or kalis, though fewer in Acheh even than in Java, since devolution of office by inheritance forms the rule in the former country; and finally those of slender means, who hope to attain through their learning a competence in this world and salvation in the next. However dccp the contcmpt in which the maléms and ulamas may hold the occupiers of the so-called "priestly offices," sold as these are to Mammon, yet tliey are not themselves without regard for the good things of this world, and are not slow to seize the opportunity of securiiii^ a fair share of the latter for themselves. Well-to-do people very often prefer to give their daughters in marriage, with a sufficiënt provision for their maintenance, to these literati, wlio ieaming. are on this account viewed with marked disfavour by the chiefs both in Java and Acheh. All alike occasionally invoke their knowledge or their prayers in times of distress, and such requests for help are always accompanied by the offer of gifts. At all religious feasts — and we know how numerous these are in Native social life their presence is indispensable, and their attendance is often actually purchased by gifts of money. There are thus numerous opportunities for profit for the ulama or malem, quite apart from the instruction they give, which though not actually "paid for" is still substantially recompensed by those who have the requisite means. To this must be added the honour and esteem liberally accorded to these teachers by the people, w ho only fear the "priesthood" (wrongly so called) on account of its influence in matters affecting property and domestic life. Just as the Israelites used to say that a prophet is without honour Nonc^cquire in his own country, so the Achehnese assert with equal emphasis that their own no man ever becomes an além, to say nothing of an ulama, in his own gampong. To be esteemed as such in the place of his birth, he must have acquired his learning outside its limits. 1 his is to be explained chiefly by the prejudice natural to man; to recognize greatness in one whom we have seen as a child at play, we must have lost sight of him for some time during the period of his development. lo this must also be added the fact that those who remain from childhood in their own gampong, surrounded by the playmates of their youth, find it harder as a rule to apply themselves to serious work than those who are sent to pursue their studies among strangers. The same notion is universally prevalent in Java. Kven the nearest relatives of a famous kyahi are sent elsewhere, preferably to some place not too close to their parents' home, in order that the love of amusement may not interfere with the instruction they are to receive and that their intercourse may be restricted to such as are pursuing or have already partially attained the same object. Ilence the expression "to be in the pondok or pèsantrèn" ahvays carries with it in Java the notion of bcing a stranger '). In Acheh the word meudagang2), which originally signifies "to be a stranger, to travel from place to place", has passed directly from this meaning to that of "to be engaged in study." Ihus it happens that most of the leamed in Great Acheh have spent the greater part of their student life in Pidië, while vice versa the studiously inclined in Pidië and on the East Coast amass their capital of knowledge in Great Acheh 3). schoolser' 1,1 thC tcrritor>' of Pidit in the widcr sense of the word 4), there were, repuTc. ° b^™ the coming of the Dutch to Acheh, certain places which were in some measure centres of learned life, where many muribs (the Achehnese name for "student", from the Arab. mttrid) both from the country itself and from Acheh used to prosecute their studies. Such were Langga, Langgb, Sriweuc, Simpang, Ir Leubatë (= Ayer I.abu). Tiró, which has in these latter days acquired a widespread celebrity from the two teungkus of that place who took a prominent part in the war against the Dutch, was from ancient tinies less famed for the teaching given theie than for the great number of learned men whom it produced and who lived there 3). Tiró was as it were sanctified by the presence of so many living ulamas and the holy tombs of their predecessors. None dared to carry arms in this gampong even in time of war; and the Uitkom or religious law was stronger here than elsewhere, while its enemy the adat was weaker. Growing up amid such surroundings, many young men feel themselves led as it were by destiny to the study of the sacred law. 1) In ISantën this principle is pursucd so far that boys are even sent for their clementary studies (the recitation of the Oman) to a po,„tok outside their own village; but in other parts of Java as well as in Acheh this is cxccptional. 2) ('reuing dagang always means "stranger" and is usually applied to foreign retail trailers and especially to Klings; mem/agniig has novv no other meaning than that of "to stuily" and ureuëng meudagang mcans aa student." 3) Thus there is a teacher at Iü I.eubeuc (Ayer I.abu) called Tcii/igk,i ,ti Acheh or '1 cungku .Acheh, since he pursucd his studies for a long time in Acheh. Others generally takc their narnes from the gampong in which they reside or were bom, even though they may have travelled elsewhere to seck instruction. 4) The Achehnese give the name of I'idiü to the whole of the territory which formerly belonged to the kingdom of that name, i. e. almost the whole of the North Coast with its hinterland, and include under the name Tim,, (the Kast, as reckoned from the capital of Acheh) all that we call the North and East Coast. 5) Vol I p. 178. Chèh Saman '), who of late years was conspicuous in Great Acheh as a leader in the holy war until his death, was the son of a simple leubè from Tiró 2). The foremost member of an old family of pandits in that place was within the memory of man the Teungku di Tiró par excellcnce, also sometimes known as Teungku Chi' di Tiró. Such was till his death in 1886, Teungku Muhamat Amin, and his relative, the energetic Chèh Saman, was his right-hand man. The latter indeed succeeded him; for at Muhamat Amin's death his eldest son (a learned man who has since died), was still too young to till his father s place. A younger son of Muhamat Amin is now panglima under the supervision of the well-known Teungku Mat Amin, the son of ( heh Saman. [This Mat Amin with about a hundred of his followers perished in 1896 at the surprise of Aneu Galong by the Dutch troops.] In Acheh Proper, before the war, the principal centres of teaching were situated in the neighbourhood of the capital and in the sagi of the XXVI Mukims. Teungku di Lam Nyóng, whose proper name was Nya' Him (short for Ibrahim), attracted even more followers than his father and grandfather before him, and drew them by hundreds to Lam Nyóng, eager to hear his teaching. He had himself studied at Lam Ba ét (in the \I Mukims) with a guru who owed his name of Teungku Meusé (from _ Egypt) to his sojourn in that country, and at Lam Bhu under a Malay named Abduggamad. Very many Achehnese ulamas and almost all the teachers of the North and East Coasts owe their schooling wholly or in part to him. After the death of a certain Muhamat Amin, known as Teungku Lam Bhu', and of his successor the Malay Abuggamad, who had wedded the former's sister, a period of energy in learning was followed by one of inactivity. This was all changed by the appearance of Chèh Marahaban :1). 1 lis father was an unlearned man from Tiró, who settled later 011 the West Coast. Marahaban studied in Pidië (in Simpang among other places) and later 011 at Mekka, where he acted as haji-shaikh4) (guide and protector of pilgrims to Mekka and Medina) to his fellow- 1) Sec Vol I, pp. 179—182. 2) Hcnee the jealous Teungku Kuta Karang would never speak of Chèh Sanian lo lus followers as Teungku Tiró, but contemptuously styled him Leubè Saman. 3) Vol 1 pp. 101, 187. 4) See my Mekka, II, pp. 28 et seq. and 303 et seq. countrymen. He returned from Arabia with the intention of settling down again in Pidië, but at the capital of Acheh he yielded to persuasion and put his learning at the disposal of Teuku Kali Malikön Adé ') and of the less learncd kali of the XXVI Mukims. At the same time he became a teacher and a prolific vvriter l). In course of time there arose a clever pupil of the above-named Malay Abduggamad, who received the title of Teungku di Lam Gutx) from the gampong of Lam Gut. His proper name was Jalaluddïn. He became not only a popular teacher but also kali of the XXVI Mukims. His son, a shrewd but comparatively unlearned man, inherited his father's title and dignity, but gladly transferred the duties of his office to his son-in-law, the Marahaban just spoken of. The grandson of the old leungku di Lam Gut, and his surviving representative, is similarly kali in name, but is consulted by none and never poses as a teacher. At Krueng Kale there was a renowned teacher who succeeded his father in that capacity. At C/iot Paya sucli students as desired to bring their proficiency in reciting the Quran to a higher level than could be attained in the village schools, assembled under the guidance of Teungku Dcuruih, a man of South Indian origin. The unsettlcd condition of the country during the past 26 years lias of course completely disorganized religious teaching. In Lam Seunöng sucli instruction is still given by an old Teungku who takes his name from that gampong; like him, Teungku Tanöh Mirah, who besides being a teacher is also kali of the IV Mukims of the VII (sagi of the XX\ I) acquired his learning at Lam Nyóng. The same was the case with Teungku Kruëng Kalé alias Haji Muda, who studied at Mekka as well. In Seulimeum (XXII Mukims) is a teacher called Teungku Usén, whose father Teungku Tanöh Abee4), celebrated for his learning and independence, held the position of kali of the XXII Mukims. abodè*of the lhC students' who are for thc most Part strangers in the place where students. they pursue their studies, must of course be given a home to live in. Lven where their numbers are not told by hundreds it would be difficult 1) Vol I pp. 96 et seq. ' 2) He is flirther referred to in the next chapter. 3) Ihe preposition di in such appellations, which distinguishcd persons borrow from the gampong where they reside or were bom, is sometimes employed and sometimes omitted; but the vernacular has given to this prefixing of di a honorific signification, Teungku di Tiró, for instanee, sounds more respectful thari Teungku Tiró. 4) See \ ol. I, p. 100. [Both father and son are now dead]. to house thcm all in the meunasah, a building which, as we know, serves as a chapcl for the village and as a dormitory for all males whose wives do not live in the gampöng. 'Ihe intercourse with the young men of the gampöng resulting from lodging under the same roof with thcm, is also regarded as detrimental to their studies. As a rule, then, the people of the gampöng, on the application of the teacher, erect simple buildings known as rangkangs, after the fashion of the students' pondoks or huts in Java. A rangkang is built in the form of a dwelling-house, but with less Rangkangs. care; in place of three floors of different elevations it lias only one floor on the same level throughout, and is divided on either side of the central passage into small chambers, eacli of which serves as a dwelling-place for from one to three vuiribs. Occasionally some devout person converts a disused dwelling-house into waqf (Ach. wakeiièh) for the benefit of the students. The house is then transferred to the enclosure of the teacher and fitted up as far as possible in the manner of a rangkang. In Java every pondok or hut of a pésantren lias its lm all (Smid. Assistant kokolot) who maintains order and enforces rules of cleanliness, and enlightens the less experienced of his fellow-disciples in their studies. Similarly in Acheh the teungku vil tig kil tig is at once assistant master and prefect for the students who lodge in the rangkang. He explains all that is not made sufficiently clear for tliem by the teaching of the gurèë. The students are often occupied for years in mastering the subsidiary branches of learning, especially grammar, and liere the teungku rangkang is able to help them in attaining the necessary practical knowledge, by guiding their footsteps in the study of Malay pikah and usuy books sucli as the Masaïlah, Bidayah and Qirat al-mustaqlm ). Tliis establishment of heads of pondoks or rangkangs and the excellent custom among native students of continually learning from one another alone save the system from inefficiency, for the teachers take no pains to improve the method of instruction, and many of them are miserably poor pedagogues in every form of learning. The ulamas are wont to impart instruction to the students in one of Method of the two following ways. Either the latter go one by one to the teacher acj0pte(i i,y with a copy of the work they are studying, whereupon he recites a the teachers. i) Sec p. 5 abovc. chapter, adding the requisite explanations, and then makes the pupil ïcad the tcxt and repeat or write out the commentary; or else the disciples sit in a circle round the master, who recites both text and commentary like a professor lecturing his class, allowing each, either during or after the lesson, to ask any questions he wishes. bïduna"annd ^ th° firSt f th°Se tW° systcms is callcd sorogan and the second bandungan. In Acheh the former method is usually followed by the reading of one of the Malay manuals mentioned above under the super- vision of the gampöng teacher orof the teungku rangkang, the bandungan method alone being used for the study of the Arabic books. The Achehnese have no special names for these mcthods of instruction Unclean- Besides the system of teaching, the Achehnese rangkanes have in lincss of the _ , *.i i students. common with the Javanese pondoks an uncleanliness wliicli is proverbial indeed the former surpass the Jatter in this respect. One might suppose that in such religious colonies, where the laws of ritual purification are much more strictly ohserved than elsewhere, we should find an unusually high degree of personal cleanliness. Experience however shows that a man who limits himself to the minimum requirements of the law in this respect can remain extremely dirty without being accused of neglect of lus religious duties. Nor do the laws of purification extend to clothing. 1 he mere ritual washing of the body (often limited to certain parts only, si nee the complete batli is seldom obligatory, especially where tliere is 110 intercourse with women) is of little service, as the clothes are seldom washed or changed and the rooms in which the students live rarely if ever cleaned out. Such advantage over ordinary gampong folk as the muribs may possess in regard to cleanliness through their stricter observance of religious law, they lose through their bachelorhood, since tliey have to manage their own cooking, washing etc. In Java there are to be found in many pësantrèns written directions regulating the sweeping out of the huts, the keeping of watch at niglit, the filling of the water-reservoirs etc., and fines are leviet! 011 those who omit their turn of service or enter pondok or chapel with dirty 1) The bandungan method is thus described; "Teur.gh, khcu,,, geutanybë sima' = "the master speaks and we hearken." Si,na' is the Arabic and is als» used in Malay and Javanese in the sense of "hearkening" to teaching by word of mouth, or to the hearing by the guru of li is pupils' reading or rccitation. feet, the money being paid into the coramon chest '). Ill-kept though these rules often are, tliey still render the pondoks and their occupants a little less unclean than the rangkangs and their muribs in Acheh, where the universal dislike of water and habit of dirt have reached an unusually high degree. In Java gudig or Inning (mangy or leprous) is a very common epithet of the students, and the "san tri gudig" is even to some extent a popular type. Thus it is not surprising that in Acheh also kadé and suchlike skin-discases though tliey are not confined co the students huts, are yet regarded as a sort of hall-mark of the murib. The "eneral develonment of the muribs in Acheh derives less benefit Iniluenccof " ... the life leil by from their sojourn in the rangkangs than that of the santris m Java the students from their wanderings from one pesantrèn to another. 1 he latter become °^eriJ{1CjgVJ?iC. familiar with their fellow-countrymen of other tribes, as Javanese with opment. Sundanese and Madurese, and their sttulies draw thcm from the country into the large towns such as Madiun and Surabaya. Tliey also improve their knowledge of agriculture through planting padi and coffee to help in their maintenance. In Acheh geographical knowledge is confined to narrow liniits; as the student only moves about witliin liis own country, intercourse with kindred tribes is not promoted by the nnudagang nor does hc act as a pioneer of developmcnt in any way. He returns home with very little more knowledge of the world than he possessed when he went 011 lus travels; all he learns is an ever-increasing contempt for the adat of liis country (which conllicts with Islam in many respects) so that later on, as a dweller in the gampöng, he looks down 011 his fellow-countrymen with a somewhat I'harasaical arrogance. It is needless to observe that the morals of the inhabitants of the rangkangs in Acheh are still less above suspicion tliau those of the pësantrèn-students in Java. Those who have devoted themselves to study and all who have for I'opular est- . imation of the some rcason or other a claim to the title of tcungku ), aie regarded tcungkus. by the mass of the people not only as having a wider knowledge of religion than themselves, but also as having to some extent, control 1) This common fund, called the vith reSome of them are classified as sihé (Arab. sihr) i. e. witchcraft, the t,ie existence and activity of which is recognized by the teaching of Islam, though its practise is forbidden as the work of the evil one. It is just as much sihé to use even permissible methods of èlemnèé for evil ends, such as the injury or destruction of fellow-believers, as to employ godless means (such as the help of the Devil or of infidel djéns), although it be for the attainment of lawful objects. The strict condemnation of the cleumèê sihé by religious teaching does not, however, withhold the Achehnese, any more than the Javanese or the Arabs, from practising such arts. Hatred for an enemy arrd the love of women (generally that of the forbidden kind) are the commonest motives which induce them to resort to bleumè'cs of the prohibited class. The formulas of prayer and the methods recommended in the orthodox Arab kitabs as of sovereign force are such as might also well be classified under the head of witchcraft, but they are regarded by the Believers as ordained of the Creator. Nor do the Achehnese teachers confine this view to such mystic arts as are marked with the Arabic seal; they also readily employ purely Achehnese material or such as smacks of Hindu influence, so long as they fail to detect in it a pagan origin. An important source of information in regard to the mystic arts of which wc now speak, as practised at the present time in Acheh, is a work called Taj-ul-mulk, printed at Cairo in 1891 (A. II. 1309) and at Mekka in 1893 (A. II. 1311). It was written in Malay by the Achehnese pandit Shaikh Abbas i. e. Teungku Kuta Karang (as to whom see Vol. I pp, 183 et seq., Vol. II Chapter II J? 4 etc.) at the instance of Sultan Mansö Shah ( Ibrahim, 1838—1870). It contains little or nothing that may not be found in other Arabic or Malay books of the same description, but furnishes a useful survey of the modes of calculating lucky times and seasons, of prognostications and of Native medical art and the methods of reckoning time which are in vogue in what we may call the literate circles of Acheh. As the writer is an ulama, he of course abstains from noticing "branches of science" which give clear tokens of pagan origin. II 3 The science A very important class of eleuwèc for all Achehnese, but especially bility! ul"cia" for chiefs, panglimas and soldiers, is that known as cleumeé keubay, i. e. the science of invulnerability. Ihis used also to be held in high esteem in Java, witness the numerous primbons ') or manuals extant upon this subject. The principles on which this group of deunt*! is based are (i) the somewhat pantheistic scheme of philosophy to which we have alluded abovea) and (2) the theory that a knowledge of the essence, attributes and names of any substance gives complete control over the substance itself. The science The combination of these two notions causcs a knowledge of the of iron. . innermost nature of iron (the via ripat beusoé, as it is called) to form a most important factor in endowing man with the power of resisting this metal when wrought into various weapons. The argument is as follows. All clements of iron are of course present in man, since man is the most complete revelation of God, and God is All. The whole creation is a kind of evolution of God from himself, and this evolution takes place along seven lines or grades (meurcutabat tujo/i), eventually returning again into the Unity through the medium of man. I11 the earth then all clements are united and capable of changing places with one another. Now the ,eleuniee of iron lias the power of producing on any part of the human body that is exposed to the attack of iron or lead, a temporary formation of iron or some still stronger element that makes the man keubay or invulnerable. Treatment Mercury (ra sa) is regarded as exercising a mysterious influencc over mtiiiin the otlier metals; hence one of the most popular methods of attaining invulnerability is the introduction of mercury in a particular manner into the human body (peu/among ra sa). This treatment can only be successful when resorted to under the guidance of a skilled gurèë. So every Achehnese cliief lias, in addition to many advisers 011 the subject of invulnerability, one special instructor *) known as ureueng pcutambng ra'sa keubay or ra'sa salc/i. Preparation Ordinarily the treatment is prepared for by at least seven days kaliïct for the course , , . r . ... .... , ,,. of treatment. (tloinh °' penance by religious seclusion) 111 a separate dweiling near 1) See Vol. I p. 198. 2) P. 10 et seq. 3) The git ree of Teuku Nc1 was a man from Bat cc Ilic' in Samalanga; that of Tcuku Nya' Banta (panglima of the XXVI Mukims) is called Teungku di Pagar Ruyuëng; that of Panglima Meuseugit Raya is Teungku (lam, said to eome from I>aya. Thcre is also a certain Teungku di Lapang who enjoys great celebrity. some sacred tomb. These days the patiënt spends in fasting, eating a little rice only at sundown to stay his hungc. After this begins the rubbing with mercury, generally 011 the arms, which lasts until a sufficiënt quantity of mercury has, in the opinion of the gurcë, been absorbed by the patient's body. Kor the first seven days of his treatment lie is further subjected to pan tang of various kinds; he must refrain from sexual intercourse, and the use of sour foods, and of bok jantóng (plantain-buds)^ Im mnrnng (kèlor-leaves) and labn (pumpkin). Not only during the treatment but also in his subsequent life, the patiënt must repeat certain prayers for invulnerability at appointed times. Many teachers liold tliat such du as or prayers are only efficacious if they are made to follow 011 the obligatory seumayangs; some even require of their disciples an extra seumayang in addition to the 5 daily ones to supplement those which they may have neglected during the previous part of their lives. By this means an odour of sanctity is given to their method, while at the same time they have a way left open to account for any disappointment of their disciples' hopes, without prejudice to their own reputation. As a matter of fact very few chiefs remain long faithful to this religious discipline; thus, sliould they later 011 be reached by the steel or bullet of an enemy, they must blame their own neglect and not their teacher. During the massage the teacher also repeats various prayers. To The patron . of invulnera- perfcct himsclf in his calling he has to study the proper traditional b-lUty. methods for years as apprentice to another gurH, and also to seclude himsclf for a long period amid the loneliness of the mountains. I11 this seclusion some have even imagined that they have met Malém Diwa, the immortal patron of invulnerability, with whom we shall become further acquainted in our chapter 011 literature (N°. XIII) '). I11 many of the systems employed to compass invulnerability, it is considered a condition of success that the pupil should not see his teacher for a period of from one to three years after the completion of the treatment or the course of instruction; indeed it is even asserted 1) [In the ycar 1898, and again on a smaller scalc 111 1899, an adventurer from Telong in the Gayö country who bore the name of Teungku '1'apa owing to his alleged long mystic seclusion (/<'ƒ<») caused a considerable commotion in the dependencies on the Kast Coast, and lo some extent also in those 011 the North Coast. He gave himself out to be Malém Diwa himsclf, and promised his followers invulnerability and victory over the "unbelievers" The appearance of the Dutch troops speedily put an end to the success which this impostor at first enjoyed among the people. Ile was killed in 1900 in a skirmish with the Dutch troops near 1'iadah (Pasè)]. Objects tlic wearing of which ensures invulnerability. Pcugawè. that a transgression of this pantang regulation would result in the death of the heedless disciple who disregarded it. In the night following the first day of the treatment, the patients complain of a heavy feeling in the neck, the idea being that the quicksilver has not yet fully dispersed and collects beneath the back of the head when the patiënt assumes a recumbent attitude. The remedy for this intolerable feeling is the repetition of a rajah or exorcising formula by the instructor. 1 o give some notion of the energy with which the mercury is rubbed in, we may mention the popular report that Teuku Nè' of Meura'sa absorbed 10 katis (about 13 lbs.) of quicksilver into his body through the skin '). The "introduction of quicksilver' is, however not the only method cmployed to produce invulnerability. There are certain objects which have only to be worn on the body to render it proof against wounds. One class of such ob¬ jects is known aspeugawè. 1 hese have the outward appearancc of certain living creatures, such as insects, caterpillars, lizards etc., but are in fact composed of iron or some still harder metal, which a knife cannot scratch. They are only to be met with by some lucky chance 011 the roadside or in the forest. 1) Massage with mercury appears to be also regarded as a specifie to secure invulnerability umong the Malays of the Padang highlands. TEUKU NÈ' Ol- MEURA'SA. Peugmvès haviug the forni of au ulat sangkadu (a long-haired, ashcolourcd variety of Caterpillar) are very highly prized. 1 he possessor of such a charm, if constrained to part with it, can casily secure a piice of as much as tvvo to fivc hundred dollars. According to the prevailing superstition, these objects were once actually living creatures, but have beconie metaniorphosed, through the conversion of clements mentioned above, into iron, copper 01 some othcr nictal. A sort of peugawè can be made by rolling up an ajeumat (= jimat, ajimat "amulet") in a layer of e malb (sediment of gumlacquer). This too is supposed to be gradually transformed into iron by means of certain formulas, and like other peugawès, renders its wearer wound-proof. A peiigazoè prepared in this manner lias the special name of bafonabeiïèt (from bahv an-nubuiniüah = the (mystic) sea of piophetical gifts). It is worn on a band round the waist. If the object found combines with the hardness of iron the form of a fruit or some other eatable thing, it is also called peugawè, but is only of service as a charm (peunawa) against poisons, fiom the action of which it protects its wearer. Another peculiar sort of charm against wounds is the rantc buy (pig's ^lllu rante chain). Certain wild pigs called buy tunggay from the fact that they aie solitary in their habits, are said to have a hook of iron wire passing through their noses which renders them invulnerable. I his is supposed to be formed from an earthworm which the animal takes up with his food, but which attachés itself to his nose, and there undergoes the change of form which couverts it into a charm. When the buy tunggay is eating he lays aside this hook, and happy is the man who can avail himself of such a moment to make himself master of the rantc. According to the devout, however, the efficiency of most pcugawis is conditional on the wearers leading a religious life; otherwise the charms merely c.ause irritation instead of protecting his body. Hullets the lead forming which changes of its own accord into iron, l'cungeuliüh. are called peungeiili'ch. Whoever finds one of these infallible charms will be wise to keep it about him when he engages in cotubat, but not on other occasions, as it will tlien bring him evil fortune. 1 Ienct the common saying, addressed for example to one who arrivés just too late for a feast: — "what, have you a peungeuliëh about you ?" '). l) Ventna tatiguy pcungeulith ? other charms Another cliarm for turning aside the enemy's bullets is a cocoanut to cause in- . , t9 vulncrability. Wlth one eye (ii sabbh matei) worn about the body '). Another kenbayspecific is a piece of rattan some sections of which are turned the wrong way. Malém Diwa was so fortunatc as to fincl such an awê sungsang, as it is called, of such length that he was able to fastcn it under his shoulders round breast and back. Nowadays such freaks of nature are only to be found of the length of a couple of sections. Sfkin which0 Ccrtain Peculiar sPots on the skin, generally caused by disease, are pruduce in- a'so held to be signs or causes of invulnerability. Such for instance are the white freckles known as glnni, which reniain as scars upon the skin after a ccrtain discase. 1 his disease, (called gluiu or leuki) is saiil to begin between the fingers and in the region of the genitals and to cause violent irritation. It is supposed to be infectious 2). Malém Diwa had se\ en glums of the favourite shape known as gluui bin/ang or bungong. Such marks are considered by the Achehnesc to enhance the personal beauty of both sexes. A sort of ring-worm called kurab beusoê or iron kurab, which manifests ïtsclf in large rust-coloured and intensely itching spots on the body, is supposed to confer invulnerability, especially if it forms a girdle around the waist. I his disease is also very infectious. When it begins to declare itself, the patiënt is asked by his friends whether he lias been having recourse to a du a beusoc ("iron prayer"), as it is supposed that the kurab beusbe can be brouglit about by the mysterious craft connected with iron. ofweapon"" Whcrc so much depends 011 the efficacy of weapons as in Acheh, it is not surprising that the èlcumec which teaches how to distinguish good weapons from bad is regarded as of high importance. This art lias been to a great extent (thougli with ccrtain modifications) adopted from the Malays. 1 he Achehnesc regard the Malays of Trcngganu and the Hitgis as the great authorities on the subject. 1 he forger of weapons lias his special eleutiièë, which according to our huropean notions would contribute exceedinyly little to the value of tlieii wares, thougli the Achehnesc think quite the contrary. Kqually 1) Teuku Nè' had such a cocoanut abuut him on his journey to Keumala. 2) Oil of kavu-putih or the roots of ktië/i or langkueuih pounded fine and mixed with vinegar are employed as remedies. Some strike the rash with a twig of the shrub called leuki. This last remedy is of course an example of superstition with regard to names, as it is based on the resemblance of the name of the plant to that of the disease. strange but very simplc are the expedients resortcd to by a purchaser to test the value of a reunchöng, sikin or gliwang. For instance, he measures off on the blade successive sections each equal to the breadth of his own thumb-nail, repeating a series of words such as: palch (= unfortunate), chilaka, meutuah (= lucky) mubaligia (or chénchala)-, or tua, raja, bichara, kaya, sara, tnati; or sa chénchala, keud.ua ranjuna, keulheë keutinggalan, keupeuët kapanasan etc. up to 10. The word that coincides with the last thumb-breadth, is supposed to give the value of the weapon. ' For sikins, the ordinary fighting weapons of the Achehnese, the following test is also employed. The rib of a cocoanut leaf is divided inso sections each equal in length to the breadth of the sikin, and these are successively laid 011 the blade thus. □□□□ Should they when laid upon the blade form a complete row of squares as in the above figure, it is called a gajah inbng{female elephant without •radeng or tusks) and the weapon is esteemed bad. Should there be two pieces too few to complete the last square, thus □ , then it is thought to be superlatively good, as representing the rare phenomenon of an elephant with only one tusk. Should there however be one too few, thus then it is called an elephant with two tusks, and the weapon is considered moderately good at best. There is another rich variety of èleumee, which confer on their Seers. possessors the power of seeing what is hidden from ordinary mortals. Those who practise this craft are called "seers" ') {ureuëng kcumalon). The possessors of this gift are questioned in order to throw light on the cause of, or the best cure for a discase, the fortunes of a relative who has gone on a journey, the thief or receiver of stolen goods and so forth. The questioner usually offers to the ureuëng kcumalon a dish of husked rice 0.1 which are also placcd two eggs and a strip of white cotton. The methods employed by the "seers" or clairvoyantes vary greatly. Some draw their wisdom from a handbook of mystic lore, others from the lines produced by pouring a little oil over the eggs presented to them, others again from studying the palms of their own hands. 1) Compare the orang mlliatin of liatavia etc. helpers of the . " SOmut,nM!S a,S° H»*» (J«* » i» H that the clairvoyante female mvokes the help of an invisible being (ureueng adara). After the burning of ïncense, which she inhales or over which slie waves her hands, muttering the while, the familiar spirit enters into her. Then she appears to lose her senses; trembling and with changed voice she utters some incoherent sentences, which she afterwards interprets on coming to herself again. as a'secr'.""" 1 'le "1,na' a wcII'known talking bird, called tiong by the Achehnese, is regarded as endowed with this gift of second sight, b«t a human "seer male or female, is indispensable for the interpretation of its utterances. Such clairvoyantes are supposed to understand the speech of the bird, and translate into oracular and equivocal Achehnese the incomprehensible chatter of the mina. In cases of theft the ureuïng kcumalon usually declares whether the thief is great or small of stature, light or dark of complexion, and whether he lias straight or wavy liair '), so that the questioner lias at least the consolation of knowing that the stolen article is not hopelessly lost, and that he may recover it by anxious search. For sick persons the results of the clairvoyance consist as a rule in a recipe in which the leaves of plants take the foremost place, or else it is divined that drums (geundrang) or tambourines should be played for the benefit of the sick cliild or that a many-hued garment (the ija planggi) should be given it to wear s). l.uckymarks. Another kind of divination consists in the examination of the lines on the palm of the hand (kalbn urat ja roe) as a means of telling peoples' fortunes. A further n,etho